Lecture Note GST 112 (2023) PDF

**CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY, MODES AND RELEVANCE** **Conceptual Clarification** The word philosophy is derived from Creek ***philo-sophia,*** meaning \"love of wisdom\" (knowledge). However, attempt at getting a comprehensive definition for the term philosophy over tine has been difficult. This has be...

**CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY, MODES AND RELEVANCE** **Conceptual Clarification** The word philosophy is derived from Creek ***philo-sophia,*** meaning \"love of wisdom\" (knowledge). However, attempt at getting a comprehensive definition for the term philosophy over tine has been difficult. This has been attributed to various factors. First, cultural dynamics, diversity, norms and cultural components that characterized the basis of a philosopher's experience appears to inference definition of philosophy as scholars definitions of philosophy springs from their societal cultural values. Second, historical antecedents also influence the definitions given to philosophy, for instance the pre-independence and post-independence era in Nigeria, does not have similarly philosophical principles and outlook. This tend to influence description and philosophical explanations as regards issues and phenomenon overtime. In addition, a universally accepted definition of philosophy is made impossible due to diverse ideas and opinions of different School of Thought. For instance, Idealism and realism are two schools thought in metaphysics idealism posits that mind or spirit something invisible and unreal as the primary constituent the universe while realism maintains that matter, something concrete and physical is the primary constituent in the universe. Cognate perspective also affects the attainment of a universally accepted definition of philosophy. Basically in philosophy the basic areas such as Metaphysics, Epistemology. Axiology and Logic. Defining philosophy from different subject areas is also another reason in explaining inability to have a no universally accepted definition of philosophy. However, each subject can be approached either from the substantive perspective or from the critical perspective. Finally, the aspiration and viewpoints of philosophers is a basis for not having an all-encompassing definition of philosophy. A philosopher agenda or ambition may be tilted to either a peaceful change, revolution or status quo philosopher. Typically, Karl Marx and John Locke were for revolution and change. Locke advocated for supremacy of the monarchy while, Marx advocated for the dictatorship of the proletariat over the bourgeoisie. On the other hand Hegel and Thomas Hobbes were status quo philosophers. Overtime, the above highlighted factors are responsible for the inability to arrive at a unanimous definition of philosophy. **Conceptualization of Philosophy** As the mother of a discipline philosophy does not wear the apparel of other distinct disciplines such as Engineering, Law, Accountancy and medicine. Theses esteem professions has their specific area of specialization and are easy acknowledge in the society. If one is described as a philosopher is like a curse on a common man who wonders what philosophy connotes in the first place. Moreso, the ordinary man-on-the-street is only familiar with the word philosophy as it is used in the day-to-day activities. But this cannot be relied upon for adequate understanding or definition of philosophy. Also, one cannot change the day-to-day application of the term philosophy. Unlike someone saying my philosophy of life is transparency and integrity; the word philosophy is not synonymous with attitude. In various disciplines there exist philosophies such as Philosophy of Law, Philosophy of Education, Philosophy of Science, Philosophy of Religion, Social Political Philosophy, etc. The application of the word philosophy in the above senses is quite different from the real meaning of philosophy, thereby creating more problems as to what philosophy is all about. Consequently, taking a clue from the word philosophy that is derived from Creek ***philo-sophia,*** meaning \"love of wisdom\" (knowledge). For Pythagoras who invented the word philosophy wisdom means the most comprehensive and profound knowledge of things, therefore, wisdom is the privileged possession of the gods - no man could possess wisdom or could justify calling himself wise in deep and profound sense. This was the reason why Pythagoras described the philosopher as the 'lover" or the seeker of wisdom. Wisdom here does not imply good conduct or of practical life that consists in the acting right but rather wisdom which is very nature consists essentially in knowing. Aristotle on the other hand sees true wisdom as consisting in a genuine knowledge of things but also affirms that since wise man differs from others by his knowledge of first principle as wisdom should seek the first cause of things. Thomas Aquinas sees philosophy as a natural wisdom from sacred theology which is revealed wisdom. Wisdom, for the Greeks consists in the ability to draw meaning from experience; to judge experience wisely, ability to make sensible decisions and give good judgment as a result of one's experience and knowledge. Notably, what can be deduced from the above is that a wise person is one who seeks wisdom and can also be called a philosopher. A wise person or philosopher is somebody who makes deliberate effort to acquire knowledge through critical thinking and analysis of issues before making concrete judgment. Thus a philosopher is endowed with the following traits: i. Cultivate a very high degree of questioning ability, a tendency for a high level of speculation, as well as relating facts to each other. ii. He possesses wisdom to selected few while knowledge is for all and sundry. (Wisdom meant the totality of knowledge i.e. knowledge fall the sciences as well as all the social sciences as it known today i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, geography sociology, economics). iii. He is very critical and reflective in thinking iv. He has high sense that enable to probe are life issues v. He shuns and avoids biases, sentiment and prejudice vi. He is endowed with a sense of valid and reliable judgment vii. He has high sense of logical and rational in thinking **Philosophy Defined** The above conceptual analysis of philosophy will support the basis to attempt a definition of philosophy freeing our minds from the chuckles of various concepts and thinking already conceived about the ambiguity of understanding philosophy. The definitions of philosophy could be numerous, effort should be made to explore a few of them. Omoregbe (1990) offers the definition of philosophy in numerous ways - Philosophy is a rational search for answers to questions that arise in the mind when we reflect on human experience. - Philosophy is a rational search for answers to the basic questions about the ultimate meaning of reality as a whole and human life in particular. Harold Titus (1964) in his own sees philosophy as follows: - Philosophy is a personal attitude towards life and the universe - Philosophy is a method of reflective thinking and reasoned enquiry - Philosophy is an attempt to gain a view of the whole - Philosophy is a logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts. Bewaji (1983) describes philosophy originally connoting curiosity, the desire for fresh experience.., from all indications this definition is epistemological in perspective. Next to the above is the contemplative and speculative nature of philosophy. Here philosophy started in wonder and deals with thought. In this context, philosophy deals with the ultimate reality the quest or search for what is real. In investigating therefore, we acquire more knowledge about the object of investigation which was why some philosophers sees philosophy as "love of knowledge or thirst for more knowledge". Nwala (1981) sees philosophy as going with criticism, skepticism and refusal to believe unless on rational grounds. Philosophy goes with arguments, reflections rationality and critical evolution. Bodunrin (1981) sees Philosophy as a negative appraisal of received ideals". This definition is Socratic in approach in that Socrates used the process of asking questions to provide answer to questions his disciples put across to him. It was through the responses given that was critically evaluated and scrutinized in order to correct misconstrued ideas. Linguistically, philosophy is seen as the clarification of thought, language and concepts. Philosophy becomes imperative in clarifying the meaning used and the application of concepts as well as linguistic analysis, the central task of philosophy is to explain, clarify and mark out logical as well as semantic implications of language of expression. Plato, (1979) sees philosophy as the search for an ideal life and how to live it. Socrates, the father of western philosophy demonstrated this when he was in jail in Athens condemned to death for allegedly leading the youth against the state. His friends came in the night ready with plans for his escape. Socrates reply was that he had always taught that good citizens obeyed the laws of his society. Since running away from prison and invariably from his condemnation to death amounts to a disobedience to his state, he would do no such things so, to know what is good is to be good thereby leading a virtuous life. According to Jacques Maritaan (1930) "Philosophy is a science which by the natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principle of all things, in other words, the science of things in their first causes, in so far as this belongs to the natural order". Aristotle refers to philosophy as "the knowledge of truth". William James (1977) sees Philosophy as "a habit of mind or a body of natural knowledge that results from a discipline inquiry d that enables one to explain in a more or less profound way, the sum of human experiences". D. O'Conoor (1963) opines that philosophy is a laborious piecemeal effort to criticize and clarify' the foundations of our beliefs". **Modes of Philosophy** Philosophy is activity-based and practical rather than a body of pass knowledge. Thus students are not meant to learn philosophy but the focus is to learn philosophy by practicing it i.e. philosophizing. Notionally, there are four modes of philosophy explicitly; observation, analytic, speculative and prescriptive. **Observation**: The first step in any philosophical inquiry or intellectual research begins with observation of some phenomenon such as event, a thing, a place, a person or an activity, etc. Philosophy, we know started to wonder; therefore, the very first step in philosophical inquiry must begin by sense of wonder. Philosopher ponders on anything unusual, irregular or extra-ordinary about a given phenomenon. So, when philosophers are observing, what they are actually doing is collecting relevant information needed in assisting them to proffer solution to any given problems. **Analytic**: After careful observation of phenomenon, philosopher moves to the next stage which is the stage of analysis. Here, philosopher mentally "undressed" to the minutest detail of every components of information gathered in a systematic, critical and logical manner. Analytic philosophy is concerned with the meaning of words. It analyses the meaning of words in a careful, patient and meticulous manner through the sense of reasoning. For example, words like education, teaching, learning, freedom, etc. maybe analysed by philosophers to examine appropriate or how inconsistent our use of these words may be. **Speculative**: From the stage of critical analysis, philosopher moves to the next stage which is the stage of speculation. Speculative philosophy is the synoptic role of philosophy or the process of reflection. During this process, philosopher place side by side all the relevant information gathered concerning the phenomenon in question he/she thereby reflects totally so as to arrive at a logical sound and valid conclusion. **Prescriptive**: The last stage of philosophy inquiry is the stage of prescription. This stage is also known as the normative role of philosophy. It seeks to set standards. Grounds or criteria for the judgment of values, conduct and art (Kneller, 1964) Prescriptive philosophy seeks to establish the objectivity or subjectivity of concepts such as good and sad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly. It also seeks to establish some fundamental laws for judging which actions are worthwhile and which are not. In essence, when philosopher has critically analyzed issues or phenomenon through the use of reason, he/she now possesses a sound knowledge prescribing what ought to be the real nature of phenomenon or ought to be an ideal life, situation, etc. **Scientific Form of Inquiry** Science can be defined as the product of curiosity - the unknown. It seeks for evidence and deals with a fact that is with what is true or false. In its strict or pure form, science is the "quantitative and objective knowledge of nature". Science is knowledge for its own sake without due regard for practical consequences. Thus, science is those disciplines of mathematical, physical chemical and natural sorts which make a claim to exactness, objectivity, universality and methodological orthodoxy. They include among others, the discipline of Mathematics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Biology, etc. With the brief definitions of science, let us now look at the method of inquiry which includes: I. Identification of problem: This has to do with the scientist recognizing a problem as soon as it surfaces. ii\. Observation: Here, scientist begins to observe phenomenon, events, objects as they unfold or arises. iii\. Collection of Data: After carefully observing phenomenon, events or objects, scientist then move to the stage of gathering necessary information's or data that will assist in proffering solutions to identified problems. iv\. Formulation of Hypotheses: After the stage of collecting data, the scientist proceeds to formulate hypothesis or a number of hypotheses, which serves to guide him/her in finding some solutions to the problem in view. Hypothesis is a tentative statement or explanation of what is guessed to be the problem and the possible or likely way of solving it. The purpose of hypothesis therefore, is to inform, guide and direct the scientist's actions towards solving the problem he/she is confronting. **v. Experimentation**: Here, the scientist tries out a number of practical activities as informed, guided and directed largely by the statement of his/her hypothesis. The scientist is up and doing i.e. going to the laboratory to perform an experiment in order to reach a definite way or means of solving the problem at hand. **vi. Formulation of Law or Theory**: After experimenting, the scientist states in definite and categorical terms the result or results of his/her experiments. Where such results confirm what the hypothesis, postulated then the scientist goes on to formulate a theory in respect of the phenomenon and the solution to the particular problem he/she investigate Furthermore, where a theory has been established, and the same theory true universally in all similar instances then the scientist goes on to formulate a law out of the theory. A theory or law is a descriptive statement, a statement of fact that expresses or gives information about "what is real and true of the phenomenon and of the solution to the problem for which it is being investigated. Conclusively, both philosophical methods and scientific methods of inquiry furnish us with knowledge of reality though in their own respective sequence of processes. **Functions of Philosophy** Philosophy is considered an indispensable knowledge in all human endeavours and in the human society for the following reasons: 1\. It is contended that philosophy provides comprehensive interpretation of fundamental issues and events pertinent to them. It probes into the various forms of meaningful language, the shades and differentiation in human communication as well as the analysis and synthesis thereof. Consequently, clarity and understanding in human dialogue and assumption is ensured. 2\. Philosophy helps the individual have guided outlook on life by examining issues critically, the individual is enabled to understand the complexities of life, thereby helping him to sharpen his focus and contribute more meaningfully to the issues and problems he is confronted with. 3\. Philosophy studies reality; it embraces, relatively, the sum total of human experience. Philosophy makes use of data from the sciences, arts, literature and religion. 4\. Philosophy is coordinative in the sense that it studies all beings. For instance, there is hardly any area of knowledge which philosophy does not delve into.Physics, Chemistry, Geography, History, Geology, etc. have their peculiarities in terms of their knowledge claim, but philosophy covers all those areas. 5\. Philosophy enables man to perceive the inter-relationship of phenomena and to acknowledge the orderliness and coherence of the universe even in the face of change. 6\. Philosophy, at all times, deals with the basic nature of man, his rights and privileges, his duties and obligations, the principles for assessment of right and wrong, the nature of society and the individual's place within the society. It deals with the principles of literary criticism and the attainment, by natural reason, of the existence of a Supreme Being. 7\. It establishes standards for assessing values and judging conduct. It also inquires into the accuracy of meaning and the logic of language. Since philosophy is speculative, prescriptive and analytic, it can be applied 8\. It helps man clarify his though and assumptions through the use of logic, bias and prejudices are cleared, contradictions are avoided. 9\. The Socratic dictum that the unexamined life is not worth living" is a big pointer as to what philosophy can do. Impliedly, philosophy enables man to question and scrutinize his beliefs, motives and values in order to clear his assumptions. **THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY TO SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT** The question most people (especially student's studying philosophy in the universities, colleges of education teachers' institute) often asked is: What is the relevance of philosophy to the society? What kind of job can you do after studying philosophy? Why is philosophy compulsory etc. Philosophy stands accused by the average person of being "abstract", "irrelevant", "speculative", "difficult" and "boring". People believed that philosophy is an optional enterprise, a servicing unit, a discipline that socially disables (Azenabor, 2008). Now, to answer the above questions and many more, we will discuss the contributions of philosophy to man and also how philosophy aids development in the society. - Before philosophy, man explained the world by reference to the gods. Philosophy stopped and destroyed the idea of using gods as explanatory devices for giving reasons for phenomenon; hence philosophy was an intellectual revolution. - Philosophy helps to determine societal values, development and progress. A philosopher's comprehension of the problems of his society, his view about the values within the society and the practical means he prescribes, depends on his social existence. - Philosopher's helps policymakers to appreciate the aspect of the problems of development constantly reminding them of the true nature and of society's greatest asset namely, man himself (White, 1981). - Philosophical ideas have a direct relevance to present day religious, social and political movements. Whoever wants to understand our world, and the world of the past out of which it grew must always pay attention to philosophical ideas. - The study of philosophy helps us to understand the nature and history of civilization. That is to say, it assist in reflecting on the achievement and cultures of civilization since philosophical reflection is the power to ask questions about life, to solve problems and to plan conduct i.e. capacity to look before and after. - The task of philosophy is to change the world by providing the system or status quo with the theoretical and intellectual justification it requires or by being a critique of its society and established order. - Philosophy serves humanity because it responds to human condition, life and existence. That is why philosophy is humanism. For instance, the existentialist movement and theories like pragmatism. etc. are geared toward enabling us to appreciate the effective significance of philosophy within the context of real life. **Review Questions** 1\. Give the etymological meaning of philosophy 2\. What are the other uses and meaning of philosophy? 4\. Why do we refer to the wisdom of the ancient as pre-philosophical? 5\. Identify and explain the benefits you may derive from the study of philosophy. 6\. Mention five reasons why there is no univocal definition of philosophy 7\. Discuss the methods philosophers use in their attempt to provide answers to problems. 8\. Compare and contrast philosophic method of inquiry and scientific method of inquiry. 9\. Why is philosophy defined as the child of failure? 10\. Discuss why philosophy is regarded as the mother of all disciplines of study.