Lecture 7 Developmental Psychology PDF

Topics in Developmental Psychology PSYC 21021 Dr. Bahar Koymen Week 7 1  Overview × Week 7: Self-awareness & affiliation × Week 8: Importance of play for development × Week 9: Morality × Week 10: Theory of mind...

Topics in Developmental Psychology PSYC 21021 Dr. Bahar Koymen Week 7 1  Overview × Week 7: Self-awareness & affiliation × Week 8: Importance of play for development × Week 9: Morality × Week 10: Theory of mind × Week 11: Revision Session 2  Evolution & Development Theme × 2 important questions: 1) Is it a universal skill? Do children all around the world show the same pattern? × Cross-cultural differences? 2) Is it a uniquely human skill? Do other species show this as well? 3 Self-awareness & affiliation PSYC 21021 Week 7 4  Overview × Self-awareness: “I” vs. “The world” × Imitation and affiliation: “I” vs. “We” × Avoiding ostracism × Reputation management × Group-mindedness: “We” vs. “They” 5  The development of self-awareness × The understanding that we are distinct from our environment. × Emerges early in infancy though continues to develop into adulthood. × Key questions: × When does a sense of self emerge? × What are the main factors which facilitate its emergence? 6  5 levels of self-awareness in early life × Level 0: confusion × Level 1: differentiation × Level 2: situation × Level 3: identification × Level 4: permanence × Level 5: self-consciousness or “meta” self-awareness Rochat (2003) 7  Level 0: confusion × Oblivious to mirrors or the reflections on the mirrors × Placing a mirror next to a canary à sing courtship songs, seek companionship · When you put a mirror in front of a new born themselves. , they are confused , they don't recognise × Why level “0”? Children have little understanding of what they look like. 8  that there other individer · Children start recognising are imitate als models & which they treat as they these models. Level 1: Differentiation ↑ × Early self-world differentiation: seen vs. felt × At birth babies differentiate their body as a “different entity” from others. × 10-minute old babies: tongue protrusion (Meltzoff & Moore, 1995): their tongue , out ↳ when an adult sticks do the same. minute old babies 10 9 Newborn Imitation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2YdkQ1G5QI 10  Level 1: Differentiation × 10-minute old babies: tongue protrusion (Meltzoff & Moore, 1995) × Recent studies did not replicate this (Oostenbroek et al., 2016) × No imitation of other acts × Babies randomly produced actions, independent of what the adult is modeling. × 24-hour-old babies differentiate when some touches their cheek vs. when they touch their own cheek (Rochat & Hespos, 1996). d children are aware that they are being touched by themselves someone other than 11  Level 2: Situation that they can The “situated self” recognise they make some physical the changes in environment. × How their bodies are situated in relation to other objects in the world. × By 6 weeks, imitation becomes more fine-tuned (Meltzoff & Moore, 1992). × By 2 months, they engage in protoconversations (Trevarthen, 1979). ↓ pretend to haveconsminds. × By 2-4 months of age infants are aware that they can control objects. 12  Level 3: Identification × Birth of “me” in the second-year of life: 18 months ↳ children recognise their reflections the mirror in Aware. ofwhatheyon × Classic study by Lewis & Brooks-Gunn (1979). × Employed the ‘mirror test’ (previously used with non-human primates) on infants aged 9-24 months. × Infants had a red mark on their face. × Infants were placed in front of mirror and observed for 90 seconds. 13 Mirror Self-recognition Task https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2I0kwSua44 14  Level 3: Identification aware of 9 1 to years. - they still aren't what they × - 9- to 12-month-olds: did not touch nose. look like. between 1-2 years × 15- to 18-month-olds: a minority touched nose. I - 21 to 2 years. × - 21- to 24-month-olds: 70% - 73% touched nose. they are slightly aware of what thy look like. ! They are serves &por candifferentia image. 15  Level 4: Permanence × Birth of me extending over time after 18 months. ↑ they refer to Memselves third × Me-but-not-me dilemma: “Me” as another. as person × Before age 4: They refer to their image in the mirror or on TV in the 3rd-person. × 3 year-old viewing herself on a TV with a sticker on her forehead: ‘‘It’s Jennifer... It’s a sticker… But why is she wearing my shirt?’’ (Povinelli, 2001, pp. 81). × After age 4: They refer to their image (photo from a different time, different clothes) as “me” and grasp the temporal dimension of self. 16  Level 5: Meta-awareness think about how others seeing are they ↑ them They become embarassed or self conscious.. × Others in mind: Evaluative and the meta- cognitive self-awareness at age 4-5. × Hold multiple representations and perspectives on objects and people. ↳ some people look at them positively but some may negatively , look × Showing “embarrassment” for their image à self-conscious how others might see them. × Corresponds to the developmental period of false belief understanding (theory of mind). 17  Is it universal? Cross-cultural studies: × 18- to 20-month-olds from Greece, Costa Rica, Germany, western Cameroon: for some may be appropriate Cultures & O × Cameroonian children passed the test less than 4%; whereas the rest more than 50% (Keller et al., 2004; 2005). appropriate for owner Cultures Only 2 out of 82 18-month-old to 6-year-old Kenyan children. × responded toward the mark, most of them freezing while staring at their specular image (Broesch et al., 2011). some parents don't talk to their kids × Why? maybe often × Parenting styles (“maternal contingent responsiveness”) × Less exposure to mirrors × General lack of expressivity maybe they recognised - something × Confused about what is expected from them. facer say anything. 18  wester en Summary I × Most children can recognise themselves in a mirror by around 18 months. × Self-recognition and meta-representation are related to other developmental milestones (e.g. language, pretense). × An understanding that one thing (i.e. a mirror image) can represent something else (i.e. the child). × Different people might represent the same thing differently. 19  Overview × Self-awareness: “I” vs. “The world” × Imitation and affiliation: “I” vs. “We” × Avoiding ostracism × Reputation management × Group-mindedness: “We” vs. “They” 20  Why imitate? × An important form of social learning. important for self-understanding. - wewant to be like , - Identifying who × A paradox: × Children imitate selectively × Children imitate faithfully à over-imitation 21  Selective Imitation × 14-month-old children imitate selectively: understanding others’ goals and intentions × copy intentional acts and not accidental acts or failed attempts (Carpenter, Akhtar, & Tomasello, 1998; Meltzoff, 1995) × copy the rational acts (Gergely, Bekkering, & Király, 2002) rational ↳ only imitate things that is 22  - repeating every single Overimitation action evermational 0 ne). × Children also copy slavishly à over-imitation: learn about objects whose causal properties are not immediately obvious × 3-5-year-olds & chimpanzees observed an adult using an unfamiliar puzzle box with opaque walls (so how it worked was not clear). × CHIMPANZEES imitated only the necessary actions, not the unnecessary actions × CHILDREN imitated all actions, including the unnecessary actions Lyons, Andrew, & Keil (2007) 23  Overimitation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zSut-U1Iks 24  Imitate to Affiliate × Social side of imitation: People’s dependence on others & need for belonging to a group creates motivations and pressures to imitate. × Learning goals: usually selective × Social goals: usually faithful and conveys social information such as “I am like you”, or, at a group level, “I am one of you”. × Empathetic responses (“I feel your pain”); competition (“I can do that too”), relative status (“I admire you”); Machiavellian ends to increase one’s influence over others × Learning and social goals (Norms): copy the actions of ingroup members (e.g., native speakers) more faithfully than those of the outgroup members. × Social pressures: children might feel pressure to imitate (e.g., making a wrong choice simply because they want to stick with the group (Haun & Tomasello, 2011) ↳ Don't want to be left out. (Over & Carpenter, 2013) 25  How do children respond to the threat of social exclusion? × Being excluded from the group is painful for adults. (Uskul & Over, 2014; Williams et al., 2001) × Adults sometimes respond to exclusion with affiliative - behaviors. > imitation. - × How sensitive are young children to ostracism? × Third-party observation > observing - othedividuals - × Do children respond with affiliative behaviors? × Imitation Over, H. & Carpenter, M. (2009) 26  Response to ostracism Participants: 5-year-olds Design: with the ball The 2 leaves played leaf the other X together & left out Ostracism videos Control E unaware of the hypotheses videos and the content of the videos moving randomly played ether was the bee leaves ↳ while the Over, H. & Carpenter, M. (2009) 27 28 29  exclusion from - a society or Response to ostracism - group × Children who watched the ostracism videos imitated more (and more faithfully) than children who watched the control videos. × Children are sensitive to social exclusion and modify their social behavior in response to nonverbal behavio, ostracism. -verb al or that promote social × Ostracism elicits affiliative behavior. engagement. - × They try to affiliate with others through - imitation Over, H. & Carpenter, M. (2009) 30  Ostacism and affiliation: Further evidence Do children draw more affiliative pictures after observing ostracism? Participants: 5-year-olds Design: Each children drew a picture. Song, R., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2015) 31  Children’s drawings: Control details not too much or too many smiley faces- Song, R., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2015) 32 more detail , positive emotions. Children’s drawings: Ostracism Song, R., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2015) 33  Response to ostracism × Children in the ostracism condition drew themselves and their friend standing significantly closer together. × Adults rated the drawings in the ostracism condition as more affiliative than the drawings in the control condition. × Drawings in the ostracism condition were more complex. ~ furtherpart. S characters Ostracism Control were drawn closer together. Song, R., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2015) 34  Reputation management To avoid exclusion and ostracism àreputation management As adults, our behavior is modulated by our perception of what others think of us. × We adjust our behavior so that others see us in a positive light. × We are more generous in the presence of others (Ernest-Jones, Nettle &, Bateson, 2011; Haley & Fessler, 2005; see Kelsey, Grossmann, & Vaish, 2018 for 3-year-olds). ↳ for example people tend to donate much more observing them , when others are money others who aren't compared to 35 Children should steal less when observed.. Children should help more when observed · Audience presence × 5-year-olds – in 4 conditions one stideeded For - many & Sticke trite ~ one extra & child one Sticker missing Stealing task: Helping task will the Child Steal stickers from the other DG willthechild a sticker sticker Observed vs. unobserved Observed vs. unobserved They a need ? the Engelmann, Herrmann, & Tomasello (2012) 36 child ? Audience presence When observed: Children stole less and helped more. When unobserved: Children stole more and helped less. ↳ pattern was reversed. when observed. more , Helped observed. less when Helped Engelmann, Herrmann, & Tomasello (2012) 37 Helping - observed Engelmann, Herrmann, & Tomasello (2012) 38 Stealing - observed Engelmann, Herrmann, & Tomasello (2012) 39  Summary × Children imitate to affiliate × The imitation is selective, when the goal is to learn × The imitation is faithful, when the goal is to convey the messages such as “I want to be like you”, “I am one of you” × Children are sensitive to ostracism × Even if it is not them who is being ostracized × Even if it is an inanimate object who is being ostracized. × Witnessing ostracism elicits more affiliative behavior (e.g., more faithful imitation). × Children manage their reputation. × They act in norm-conforming ways more often when they are observed as compared when they are unobserved. 40  Overview × Self-awareness: “I” vs. “The world” × Imitation and affiliation: “I” vs. “We” × Avoiding ostracism × Reputation management × Group-mindedness: “We” vs. “They” 41  Commitment to the group × Children prefer members of their own group to members of other groups (Dunham et al., 2011). will stick to their learn preference ↑ they × 5- to 8-year-olds predict that their team preferences would not change even if their team lost all their games (James, 2001). ↑ they will keep a secret even when receives × 5-year-olds are loyal to their groups, e.g., keep the secrets of their groups, even when receiving bribes (Misch et al., 2016). 42  Reputation management × The strategic management of reputation requires not only that we care whether people are watching but also who is watching (Banerjee, 2002; Goffman, 1959). × Do children care more about their reputation with potentially important social partners? sindy by A Children were more generous when they were 5 year olds × observed by an ingroup member than when they were observed by an outgroup member (Engelmann, Over, Hermann, & Tomasello, 2013). 43  General Summary × “I” vs. “The world” × Basic self-awareness around 18-24 months of age. × More sophisticated self-awareness around age 4-5 àmeta-representation (how others see them) × “I” and “We”: Seeing the self in the social context × Children imitate to affiliate (“I am one of you”) × Children avoid ostracism × Children manage their reputation × “We” vs. “They”: Seeing oneself as part of a group × Children are loyal to their groups × They act more generously when observed especially by in-group members 44