Lecture 20-23 Motivation PDF

1 motivation ! What energizes individual behaviour? - motivation 2  What motivates these piglets? No water...

1 motivation ! What energizes individual behaviour? - motivation 2  What motivates these piglets? No water Solid food - dry food  What causes piglets to drink Hot summer day –heat dehydration milk? Invisible, not physical internal states  THIRST? Drinking what motivates motivation? an animal to drink ?...thirst  Responses? Behavioural Individual response differences expression of 3 thirst Motivation concepts help us understand  Why do some animals choose to do different things when external environments stay constant? – behavioural variability  Why do animals react as they do?  What energizes and directs behaviour? 4  can be Motivation: studied in a variety of ways v I.  Physiological approaches bodiesthirst - rxn to 2  Psychological - brains approaches rxn. 3 Philosophical approaches 5 Eating/drinking motivations (hunger/thirst) are highlighted – concepts are relevant to a wide range of motivated behaviours  What role do biological components play in motivating behaviour?  How are biological motivations influenced by learning and cognition?  How are emotions different/similar to motivational states? 6 4 Motivational components that energize behaviour motivated behaviour is a result of the interactions lotwn these 4 components : 1 Cognition. 4.. 2 Environment Emotions. 3 Biology 7 Different models of motivation explain different aspects of behaviour The overview is not complete 8  motivation leads to explains behaviour I Biology (including some historical theories)  Genetic (e.g. FAP)  Biological monitoring systems (e.g., “drive” models, homeostasis, intervening variables) 9 Biology - genetics important concept ! * multiple choice question & Definition Fixed Action patterns: Sequence of unlearned, innate, unchangeable behaviors that, once begun, are completed. Triggered by specific stimuli Classical concept of stimulus- response Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine (1973): Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen 10  Example-fixed action patterns Egg-retrieving Greylag goose example started cannot stop ex. yawning... once Unlearned and innate: Instinctual behaviour. Unchangeable: Consistent Fixed-action-patterns movements regardless of conditions. Triggered by specific stimuli: Initiated by the sight of the egg outside the nest. Completed once begun: Continues to completion, even with different objects 11 Fixed Action patterns vs. Motivation  Why does behaviour change over time? -behavioural variability even with a constant environment/ stimuli  How do internal processes influence the pursuit of goals or avoidance of threats?  How do these concepts account for the flexibility and adaptability in behaviour, even when external conditions remain constant? 12 Biology – first generation of motivational models – homeostasis- homeostatic drive regulates loody Room Temperature Thermostat Analogy ↓ Thermometer regulatea Set point temp Error Detection Correction ↓ for homeostasis-responsible ensuring loody remains in a optimalbalance 13 Biology – first generation of motivational models – homeostasis- homeostatic drive understand internal processes that affect motivation Example Feeding Behaviour: If the body detects a drop in blood glucose levels (error), Mechanisms in the Brain: it triggers hunger Set Point (motivated drive) Error Detector: Measures the to encourage eating, correction which restores glucose physiological parameter. levels to the setpoint. Error Correction Mechanism: Motivated "drive" to activate a response, such as feeding. Homeostasis means Response: Provides negative maintaining a feedback, bringing physiological stable internal state parameters back to the set point. see Walter Cannon 1932 14 Homeostasis–like outcomes?  Homeostatic error detection (neural, endocrine, etc.) becomes activated whenever the monitored goal parameter (glucose, water, salt,calcium, etc.) becomes too high/low. The mechanism uses negative  Are brain mechanisms of feedback loop correction motivation truly homeostatic?  Homeostatic mechanisms must use set points/detect errors set points are also flexabl e...  Settling points?  Anticipatory ingestive behaviour (drinking/eating) before a physiological depletion occurs? 15 Berridge (2004) provides further reading Homeostasis alone cannot explain anticipatory motivation….e.g. for drinking/feeding Real-World Example: Most feeding/drinking behaviours occur without homeostatic deficits don't have toto - behungry be motivated to eat... smell taste , Mechanism Difference: Occurs without physiological deficit or error detection No Error Detection: Error detection mechanism not triggered Activation: Brain systems for homeostatic thirst/hunger can be activated during anticipatory thirst/hunger, even without an immediate physiological need. Triggered by predictive cues, not physiological needs smelling someone Shared Mechanisms: Similar brain circuits and elsesfoodoenitory Predictive cues neurochemical receptors 16 Motivational drives? Intervening variable? 4 stimuli 4 responses 16 arrows are needed to explain drinking Motivational state – Causal factors Intervening Variable intervening variable = link between Most minimalist inputs and concept behavioural outputs 17 Homeostatic Drive  Definition: Homeostatic drive refers to the body's mechanisms for maintaining internal stability (homeostasis) by correcting physiological imbalances.  Mechanism: Involves detecting deviations from setpoints (e.g., body temperature, blood glucose levels) and triggering responses to restore balance.  Example: Feeling thirsty and drinking water when dehydrated. Anticipatory Behavior Not everything is physiological need a  Definition: Anticipatory behavior involves actions taken in advance to prepare for future needs, based on predictive cues rather than current deficits.  Mechanism: Triggered by environmental or internal cues that predict future physiological needs, rather than by immediate imbalances.  Example: Drinking water before feeling thirsty because you anticipate needing hydration later. 18 Example: Interaction between hunger and food hedonic - feedback models incorporated into motivational models ? 19 What makes motivation interesting?  Oversimplification & historic views – homeostasis, drives, etc.? motivation  is goal Goal expectation? – affective reaction to the goal? oriented 20 Motivational states specific behaviour to acheive these states activate States of hunger/thirst e -  Internal, reversible states that initiate behaviour, select actions, and orient them towards achieving goals = goal- oriented behaviour.  Include a wider range of influences beyond just physiological needs, incorporating emotional and cognitive aspects.  Critical for prioritizing behaviours to access essential resources for well-being and survival (see behavioural needs in animals)  Examples: Hunger and thirst, which activate behaviours to obtain feed and water. 21 Regulation of motivational states  Homeostatic Mechanisms: Maintain biological balance (e.g., blood glucose levels).  Non-Homeostatic Mechanisms: e.g. influenced by social events and emotional states.  Motivational states influence not only the choices animals make regarding their interactions but also the amount of work/effort they invest in achieving a specific goal  Learning Processes: Crucial for developing and activating motivational states, 22 Work/effort & motivation & goal-seeking The cat is driven/motivated Cat flap to push the cat flap open so it can go outside and bask in the sunlight. 23  phases 2 important & ea Motivated behaviour divided in motivated work for it-highly  Appetitive phase: instrumental/operant (flexible) responses are performed to gain access to a goal measured in Laboratories (see later) 2  Consummatory phase Craig, 1918 24 The effects of behaviour can be looped back into the system motivational states can change ! Feedback models are integrated into motivational models External Changes: Food depletion in the environment. Immediate Internal Changes: Food in mouth and stomach. Long-term Internal Changes: Nutritional balance. Motivational Impact: Changes act as goals, influencing motivational states. 25 Learning - new motives can be learned by individuals through... if motivated need to test the animals to see they are ↓  Classical [Pavlovian] conditioning (see previous lectures) 2  Observational learning (see previous lectures) 3  Operant/Instrumental conditioning 26 How can we assess an animal's level of motivation when we only have its behavior and a few potentially incomplete physiological indicators to rely on? 27 Assessing motivational states in the laboratory: appetitive and consummatory acts  Behavioural Assessment: e.g. Compare actions (e.g., lever pressing for food [see operant conditioning - learning]) in food-deprived vs. non-deprived animals.  Physiological Study: Identify brain structures, circuits, neurons, and neurotransmitters involved in activating and terminating motivational states [see operant conditioning/reinforcement]. 28 Measuring motivation  Amount of behaviour performed bad  How aversive a stimulus can be made before it is avoided  Vacuum activities  Rate of bar-pressing/key pecking, pushing a door Manning & Dawkins 1998 29 Measuring motivation  Amount of behaviour performed – examples.  Assess food motivation by the amount eaten  Dust bathing motivation by the duration of dust bathing after moving hens from wire to litter floors. Increased dust bathing indicates higher motivation due to deprivation. 30  Measuring motivation  How aversive a stimulus can become before it is avoided. Example: stimulus – Bitter-tasting stimuli 31  Measuring motivation high it can occur without stimulus modivated behaviour that is so indicates highly  Vacuum activities highly motivated may performbehaviorsa - ,  Example: Hens in wire-floored cages exhibit vacuum dust bathing = sham- dustbathing  Highly Motivated Behavior: Hens may perform behaviours without appropriate stimuli.  Explanation: Highly motivated to perform the behaviour, unable to find substrate - FRUSTRATION 32 Measuring motivation Operant chamber Rate of bar-pressing/ key pecking/pushing a door 33 Push-door Turkey Bedding Material howhighisthea nation to accessing clean bedding  animals havetopushadoaredding Dirty Clean 36  Elasticity of Demand w we i laa highlrotivated nothighlyoated https://medium.com/@hbateman18/dceconomics-12-final-project-88545863ea68#.3wplneaqa Strength of an animal’s motivation: based on human consumer demand 37  Strength of motivation Essential Survival Factors and multiple e Motivation A question Inelastic Demand: Food, water, and reproduction are crucial for survival. High Motivation: The drive to obtain these essentials is strongest, influenced by hunger, thirst, and reproductive cycle stages. Motivation for other activities can be measured against the drive for Inelastic demand Elastic essential needs like food and water. for needs (food) demand for other 38 activities  Strength of motivation – laying hens work for food/shavings/feathers (example) Experiment on Hens' Work for Rewards The experiment measured the effort hens Peck a key to get were willing to exert to: access to a reward Gain access to feathers and wood shavings for consumption Gain access to food Hens had to peck a key a certain number of times to receive a fixed reward (food, shavings, or feathers). 39  Measuring motivation in animals – gold standard choice ! to food * Multiple compare  Compare work for rewards like sun or dust baths to work for food.  Gold Standard: Food has inelastic pecking key demand, indicating essential survival needs.  High Motivation: If animals work as Feeder hard for other rewards as they do With for food, it shows high motivation. reward Strength of motivation – cage size/elevated platform in rabbits (example) important to compair theseresults/motivations to that of food motivation Lloeing inelastic/high 41 Press a lever to get access to an elevated platform To understand how motivation is measured through the work done, such as in a “Skinner Box/Operant chamber”, we need to understand lever I switch the opporating animal is something the concept of operant conditioning. , a ↳ motivation measuring 42  Operant/instrumental Conditioning/learning = associative learning  Animals interact with their environment = operating something in the environment  Operant conditioning involves an association between a stimulus and a response (e.g. sound and lever-pressing behaviour)  If the response has favourable outcomes, animals will tend to make the response again  Behaviour is increased/decreased according to the consequences (reinforcing/punishing stimulus) 43  reinforces behavioer n operate/perform behaviour to enable outcome (pos. /neg) Operant conditioning  Behaviour modification based on consequences.  Reinforcement: Behaviour followed by favourable consequences (reinforcing stimulus) increases in frequency. Example: A response helping a hungry animal find food.  Punishment: Behaviour followed by unfavorable consequences (punishing stimulus) decreases in frequency.  Example: A response causing pain. 44  Types of reinforcement and punishment Punishment: Reinforcement: BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOUR Positive: Adding a AVERSIVE/UNPLEASANT ATTRACTIVE/PLEASANT stimulus/reinforcer when stimulus stimulus the animal exhibits a side yellin exting givetreatfor one on behaviour we want to in class encourage. (+) of behaviour flikelyhood Negative: removing or ATTRACTIVE/PLEASANT AVERSIVE/UNPLEASANT withholding an aversive stimulus stimulus stimulus as soon as the car - turns off loud alarm animal displays the desired when behaviour. (-) someone seat puts on belt Nielson 2020 Example of Positive Reinforcement: When an animal exhibits a desired behaviour, it is rewarded with an attractive stimulus (e.g., food). The animal learns to associate the behaviour with a pleasant experience (the reward), leading to an increase in the frequency or speed of the behaviour. 45 Reinforcement Example: Entering a windowless room unsure of light switches. Trying several switches; finding the correct one. Increased likelihood of pressing the correct switch in the future. Neural Connections: Reinforcement strengthens connections between Perception/perceptual system (seeing the switch) and Movement/motor system (pressing the switch). 46  Figure 13.5 A Simple Neural Model of Operant Conditioning Example: rat in an operant chamber/Skinner Box pressing a lever Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning Circuits responsible for operant conditioning begin in the sensory association cortex (perception) and end in the motor association cortex (movements) Two major pathways: Direct transcortical connections Basal ganglia Connections via the basal ganglia and thalamus Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning Transcortical Pathways Involved in acquiring episodic memories and complex behaviors that involve deliberation or instruction A memorized set of rules provides a script to follow Basal Ganglia Pathways As learned behaviors become automatic and routine, they are transferred to the basal ganglia Frees up the transcortical circuits No longer need to deliberately think through each step Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 13.16 Dopamine and Reinforcement When reinforcing stimuli occur, reinforcement mechanisms in the brain become active and help establish synaptic changes; Dopaminergic neurons play an important role in reinforcement Nucleus accumbens is part of the basal ganglia. The nucleus accumbens plays a key role in the brain's reward system and is involved in various functions such as motivation, pleasure, and reinforcement learning Release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, measured by microdialysis, was produced when a rat pressed a lever that delivered electrical stimulation to the ventral tegmental area. Source: Based on data from Phillips et al., 1992. Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Basics of Operant Conditioning Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Strength of motivation: Work that an animal will do to gain what it needs Purpose: Animals are asked to work for rewards like food or a dust bath. Measurement: The amount of work an animal performs shows the importance of the reward to them. Comparison: Preference tests reveal which option an animal prefers, while motivation tests indicate the extent of their preference. 52 Emotions- both positive and negative “ Multicomponent response tendencies - incorporating muscle tension, hormone release, facial expression.., and cognition, among other changes - that unfold over a short timespan. Typically emotions begin with an Chapter 48 Barbara Fredrickson & Michael Cohn individual’s assessment of the personal meaning. Either conscious or unconscious, this appraisal process triggers a cascade of responses incorporating mental, physical, and subjective changes.” (Frederickson & Cohn 2010) 53  Motivational components of behaviour Cognition Environment Emotions Biology 54 Petri 2012 1  Motivational components of behaviour motivationex Cognition Environment Emotions learning includesignition Biology Petri 2012 2 Dimportant to mc questions * Motivated behaviour, motivational states  Motivational states: reversible states that affect the likelihood and intensity of goal-oriented behaviour  Internal (e.g. hormones) and external (e.g. sensory stimuli) factors impact motivational states *  Motivated behaviour:D The appetitive phase involves seeking or approaching a goal, while the consummatory phase involves achieving the goal, such as eating or mating.  Negative feedback regulates motivational states—feeding reduces the motivation to eat, leading to a feeling of satisfaction (positive feeling/emotion) 3 How can we measure an animal's motivation? An animal might press a lever to obtain food (positive reinforcement) or to halt an unpleasant stimulus like an electric shock (negative reinforcement). The frequency and persistence of these actions reveal the animal's motivation to achieve a goal. operant conditioning is v in motivation important 4 Strength of motivation: Work that an animal will do to gain what it needs Inmotivation tests, we ask the animal to work for rewards - such as food or a dust bath The amount of work the animal will perform indicates the importance of the reward to the animal Preference tests tell us which option an animal prefers, but motivational tests how much they prefer it 5 Work that an animal will do to escape unpleasant stimuli  Measure how hard an animal will work to avoid a stressful or painful situation  Similar in concept, but in an opposite way 6 To understand how motivation is measured through the work done, such as in a “Skinner Box/Operant chamber”, we need to understand the concept of operant conditioning. 7  Operant/instrumental operating operant conditioning something Conditioning/learning = associative in the learning environ.  Animals interact with their environment = operating something in the environment  Operant conditioning involves an association between a stimulus and a response (e.g. sound and lever-pressing behaviour)  If the response has favourable outcomes, animals will tend to make the response again  Behaviour is increased/decreased according to the consequences (reinforcing/punishing stimulus) 8 Operant conditioning impt. in motivation test C questions #  Behaviour modification based on consequences.  Reinforcement: Behaviour followed by favourable consequences (reinforcing stimulus) increases in frequency. Example: A response helping a hungry animal find food.  Punishment: Behaviour followed by unfavorable consequences (punishing stimulus) decreases in frequency.  Example: A response causing pain. 9 Historical Motivation testing in the context of operant conditioning: early pioneers E. Thorndike & B.F. Skinner * Setup: Hungry cats in cages (puzzle box) with a button to open the door. Initial Behaviour: Random actions to escape. Stimulus: Food placed outside as a reward. Learning Process: Cats discovered pressing the button opened the door (instrumental conditioning) Outcome: After 10-12 trials, cats quickly learned to press the button to escape and get the food. The consequences of a behaviour determine whether it will be strengthened or weakened 10 In: Animal learning & cognition: an introduction, Pearce, 1997 Motivation testing in the context of operant conditioning: early pioneers E. Thorndike & B.F. Skinner Pecking interchangable names key Skinner Box/Operant Chamber: Animals are confined in a cage with a device to receive food. Feed hopper – provide positive consequences = reinforcement Focus: Studied how consequences influence behaviour frequency via operant conditioning Key Insight: Effects of consequences depend on the animal's motivation and lever = environment (e.g., food deprivation). bar vs non food deprived have diff outcome aeration 11 Reinforcement ↑ behaviour  Reinforcement: Presenting or removing a stimulus (reinforcer) after a response.  Positive Reinforcer: Increases behaviour frequency when presented.  Positive Reinforcement: Presenting a positive reinforcer after a behaviour.  Negative Reinforcer: Increases behaviour frequency when removed.  Negative Reinforcement: Removing a negative reinforcer after a num behaviour. procedurresenting Both types increase the frequency of the reinforced behaviour. 12 Punishment ↓ behahaviour  Punishment: Decreases behaviour frequency.  Positive Punishment: Adding a stimulus to reduce behaviour  Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus to reduce behaviour Punishment is less effective than reinforcement because it doesn't clearly indicate the desired behaviours. Reinforcement, on the other hand, guides individuals on what actions to take, making it a more powerful training method. 13  Types of reinforcement and punishment Punishment: Reinforcement: BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOUR Positive: Adding a AVERSIVE/UNPLEASANT ATTRACTIVE/PLEASANT stimulus/reinforcer when stimulus stimulus the animal exhibits a behaviour we want to encourage. (+) Negative: removing or ATTRACTIVE/PLEASANT AVERSIVE/UNPLEASANT withholding an aversive stimulus stimulus stimulus as soon as the animal displays the desired behaviour. (-) Nielson 2020 Example of Positive Reinforcement: When an animal exhibits a desired behaviour, it is rewarded with an attractive stimulus (e.g., food). The animal learns to associate the behaviour with a pleasant experience (the reward), leading to an increase in the frequency or speed of the behaviour. 14 Reinforcement schedules in an operant chamber have to program Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., FR-5 requires 5 pecks for food). Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: Reinforcement after a varying number of responses (e.g., VR-5 averages 5 responses per reinforcement). Produces high response rates. 15 Reinforcement schedules in an operant chamber Interval Schedules Fixed Interval (FI): Rewards are given after a fixed amount of time. For example, on an FI-50 schedule, 50 seconds must pass after receiving one reinforcement before another response will be reinforced. Variable Interval (VI): Rewards are given after varying amounts of time. For example, on a VI-50 schedule, the interval averages 50 seconds, but the exact time varies from one reinforcement to the next. 16 Positive reinforcement- operant conditioning studies  https://app.jove.com/v/5426/positive-reinforcement- operant-conditioning-studies 17 Motivated behaviour and physiology 18  Figure 13.5 A Simple Neural Model of Operant Conditioning associating behaviour voluntary a with a outcome Example: rat in an operant chamber/Skinner Box pressing a lever Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning Circuits responsible for operant conditioning begin in the sensory association cortex (perception) and end in the motor association cortex (movements) Two major pathways: Direct transcortical connections Basal ganglia Connections via the basal ganglia and thalamus Cortico-basal circuits – motivation circuit Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning Transcortical Pathways -learning logins with this path Involved in acquiring episodic memories and complex behaviors that involve deliberation or instruction A memorized set of rules provides a script to follow Basal Ganglia Pathways - then we use this pathway As learned behaviors become automatic and routine, they are transferred to the basal ganglia Frees up the transcortical circuits No longer need to deliberately think through each step Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 13.16 Dopamine and Reinforcement Serotonin = 5 HT When reinforcing stimuli occur, reinforcement mechanisms in the brain become active and help establish synaptic changes; Dopaminergic neurons play an important role in reinforcement Nucleus accumbens is part of the basal ganglia. ↳ exfood tastespamin involved The nucleus accumbens plays a key role in the brain's reward system and is involved in various functions such as motivation, pleasure, and reinforcement learning Release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, measured by microdialysis, was produced when a rat pressed a lever that delivered electrical stimulation to the ventral tegmental area. Source: Based on data from Phillips et al., 1992. Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved & Basics of Operant Conditioning Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Motivations behind normal and abnormal behaviour: understanding ‘abnormal’ behaviour 24 Deviations from normal behaviour? What is normal? > has to do alot wite visions deviation deviation < high intelligence https://fellowshipoftheminds.com/2014/10/11/how-smart-or-stupid-is-your-country / 25  Normal and abnormal behaviour: statistical perspective? > decision is subjective  Statistical Deviation: Normal and abnormal behaviours are linked to statistical deviation.  Objective Methods: Scientific methods and norms are used to determine if a behaviour is pathological or abnormal.  Debate on Boundaries: The exact line between normal and abnormal is often debated.  Standard Deviations: Typically, one or two standard deviations from the average mark this boundary.  Nature's Continuum: In nature, there are no clear boundaries between normal and abnormal behaviours. 26 Abnormal behaviour definition “Behaviour which differs in pattern, frequency or context from that which is shown by most members of the species in conditions that allow a full range of behaviour” Fraser and Broom,1990; Broom and Fraser, 2015  Identifying abnormal behaviour requires familiarity with the species' normal behaviour.  Understanding typical movements, their frequency, and the circumstances of their occurrence is essential. Broom, 2019 . 27 Example: Tail biting in pigs Gentle Chewing: May cause minor reddening or small teeth marks on the recipient's tail. tail biting Vigorous Biting: Can result in serious lesions or even amputation of part of the recipient's tail. 28 Schwanzbeißen bei Schweinen bekämpfen (bayern.de)  Example: Feather pecking in domestic birds Are behaviours still they abnormal if have a specific function Behaviour: One hen repetitively pecks at or plucks and eats feathers from another hen. Impact: Destroys the feather cover of the other bird. Occurrence: Seen in both backyard chickens and commercial birds. Categories of abnormal behaviour 1. Forced by adverse environment (stressors) 2. Coping mechanisms 3. Rare but functional Categories (1) and (2) indicate poor welfare, while category (3) does not Broom, 2019 30 1. Abnormal behaviour based on the impact of adverse environments (Broom 2019)  Pathology-Induced: Caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites.  Predator/Danger/adverse environment-Induced: Triggered by threats like predators, physical danger, or inadequate environments. Examples: Slippery Floors: Abnormal lying movements; Confinement: Lack of normal response when confined; Maternal Behavior: Failure to respond to newborns due to lack of early social experience; Disease/Parasites: Fish swimming near the surface due to eye-fluke parasites (Schlichting and Smidt; 1987Broom, 1986, 1987; Harlow and Harlow, 1965). 31 2. Behaviour used to cope with adverse environments Broom, 2019 Adaptive behaviours. Examples: Lying to prevent injury, repeated glances/touches. Functional behaviours: Escape attempts, e.g., manipulating a door in a cage. Some stereotypies start this way 32 2. Behaviour used to cope with adverse environments/stressors: Transition to abnormal behaviour Helpful behaviours can become abnormal if the problem/stressor persists. A multiple choice question Stereotypies: Repetitive, invariant movements that start as functional behaviours but lack a clear purpose. Stereotypies can indicate poor welfare and lack of environmental control, resulting from current or past inadequate environments or specific pathologies. Broom, 2019 33 Example: Bar biting in pigs Bar-biting: Begins as an escape attempt Confinement problem/food restriction persists – transition to: Repetitive, stereotypic behaviour where sows bite the bars of their gestation stalls or tether systems. 34 Stereotypies “repeated, relatively invariant sequence of movements which has no obvious purpose” Mason and Rushen, 2008; Broom, 2019 35 Stereotypic behaviour examples A bear walks backwards and forwards for hours at a time in an enclosure. 1. Weaving and crib-biting in horses, pacing in caged animals and sham-chewing (chewing action even though there is nothing in the mouth) in sows.  The motivations may be complex, but they can often be linked to some normal activity (such as foraging in pigs) that is frustrated in a particular/restricted environment. 36  Rare but functional... Alonormal 3. Behaviour in rare situations (normal)  Some rare but functional behaviors, such as certain courtship and parental actions,  Not all stereotypic behaviour is abnormal! Vertebrates do perform rhythmic repetitive behaviour which is functional: locomotion, breathing, eye-blinking, suckling 37 “Normal” stereotypic behaviour Not all stereotypic behaviour is abnormal! * whing  Some are functional and necessary for life, such linal as locomotion, breathing, and eye-blinking. behaviour noolovious purpose doesn't mean no ,  Defined as repetitive movements of body purpose at all parts or the whole body, occurring at regular short intervals (about a second or less).  In humans, these are crucial during the first stage of life. Examples include kicking, arm waving, banging, bouncing, rocking, twirling, scratching, and swaying 38 Behaviour can modify motivational states  Behavioural actions and their consequences can alter an animal's motivational state.  Abnormal Behaviour Example: Repeatedly focusing on a door after confinement may have a calming effect, reducing stress hormones and preventing self-injury. Self-regulation of motivational states? Despite adaptive changes, these behaviours still indicate poor welfare. Broom, 2019 39 Consequences of modified motivational states When motivation changes, it affects behaviour, cognition, physiology, and emotions. Emotions, in turn, can also influence these aspects 40  Emotions- both positive and negative Def. “ Multicomponent response tendencies - incorporating muscle tension, hormone release, facial expression.., and cognition, among other changes - that unfold over a short timespan. Typically emotions begin with an individual’s Chapter 48 Barbara Fredrickson & Michael Cohn assessment of the personal meaning. Either conscious or unconscious, this appraisal process triggers a cascade of responses incorporating mental, physical, and subjective changes.” (Frederickson & Cohn 2010) 41 The relations between emotion and motivation Cognitive Bias Testing: Measures the influence of emotions on cognitive processes. Negative emotional states (e.g., anxiety, depression) lead to 'pessimistic' interpretations of ambiguous stimuli. Shows how emotional states affect motivation and decision-making in animals. Helps assess animal welfare by revealing their emotional states. 42 Motivational state regulation  Both normal and abnormal behaviours can change motivational states.  Changes in motivation can alter future behaviour and physiology. These changes can affect emotions, further modifying motivational states.  These complex mechanisms help explain some abnormal behaviours and their consequences in animals. 43 Motivation drives goal-seeking behaviour, and achieving these goals provide rewards that reinforce this behaviour. 44 Motivation? Cognition Environment Emotions Biology 45 Terms: Maladaptive [dysfunctional = broader term] and adaptive behaviour?  The concept of adaptive/maladaptive behaviour refers to the effectiveness of an animal’s behaviour, rather than statistical terms  If a behaviour works for the animal (stress coping mechanism, etc) = effective/adaptive  If a behaviour does not work (ie: makes problem worse) = ineffective/maladaptive  However this concept is subjective as well, as the distinction between adaptive/maladaptive can be fuzzy at times.  Furthermore, not all behaviours are ‘controllable’, some are involuntary  Lastly, what may appear adaptive for one individual may appear maladaptive for another 46 1 Motivation? Cognition Environment Emotions Biology 2 Motivational state regulation  Both normal and abnormal behaviours can change motivational states.  Changes in motivation can alter future behaviour and physiology. These changes can affect emotions, further modifying motivational states.  These complex mechanisms help explain some abnormal behaviours and their consequences in animals. 3 Motivation drives goal-seeking behaviour, and achieving these goals provide rewards that reinforce this behaviour. 4 Motivation? Cognition Environment Emotions Biology 5 Terms: Maladaptive [dysfunctional = broader term] and adaptive behaviour?  The concept of adaptive/maladaptive behaviour refers to the effectiveness of an animal’s behaviour, rather than statistical terms  If a behaviour works for the animal (stress coping mechanism, etc) = effective/adaptive  If a behaviour does not work (ie: makes problem worse) = ineffective/maladaptive  However this concept is subjective as well, as the distinction between adaptive/maladaptive can be fuzzy at times.  Furthermore, not all behaviours are ‘controllable’, some are involuntary  Lastly, what may appear adaptive for one individual may appear maladaptive for another 6 Is motivation going wrong in some domesticated omnivores? 7 Domesticated pigs worldwide in 2024 https://www.statista.com/statistics/263964/number-of-pigs-in-selected-countries/ 8 Domesticated Gallus Gallus domesticus kept for egg laying worldwide 6.6 billion laying hens worldwide https://www.statista.com/statistics/263971/top-10-countries-worldwide-in-egg-production/ 9 Feather pecking (FP) in laying hens & Tail biting in pigs Social oral interaction that results in damage to the integument (feathers/skin) of the 180 severe FP conspecific/victim /hour Labouriau et al. 2009 The frequency of 11-25% of the time Taylor et al. et al. 2009 these behaviours vary both between and within groups Resulting in bare Chewing and biting the tail, skin areas causing open wounds 10 Outcome/animal-based measurement a) Observing the behaviour/interaction b) Recording integument/tissue damage/injury (as a proxy for the behaviour) = Integument damage is used as an indicator to assess the prevalence of tail biting in pigs and feather pecking in poultry. Such injuries provide visible evidence of these behaviours and their severity. Bald spot 11 Tail biting/injuries in pigs The prevalence of tail injury/tail biting ranges from 0% to 37%, influenced by factors like tail docking, country, injury definitions, environment, etc. Severe cases can lead to complete tail removal and tissue damage © Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2021 extending into the spine. 12 Tail docking: controversial mutilation; can reduce prevalence, but does not eliminate the problem Curled tail Intact Docked tail tail Injurious pecking: The prevalence of feather damage/feather pecking ranges from 0% to 95%, influenced by factors like beak trimming, age, strain, rearing, management, etc. in all housing systems www.alamy.com Importance of feathers in birds- Impact of feather loss  Feathers are unique to birds and essential for survival.  Made of beta-keratin, they are smooth and flexible.  Functions: locomotion; reproduction and social interaction; thermoregulation.  Birds spend much of their day preening to clean, restore, and oil their feathers.  feathers are replaced through molting (once a year), which can be a significant metabolic stress, involving up to 30% of a bird's body mass 15  Beak-trimming in egg-laying hens Severe feather pecking managed in the majority of commercial systems by beak trimming - it reduces mortality and morbidity Practice has been associated with both acute and chronic pain Gentle & McKeegan 2007, Kuenzel 2007 Considered a mutilation in the EU (Council directive 199/74/EC), although Member States are allowed to authorize beak trimming to prevent FP and cannibalism. Beak trimming is also not a remedy for FP since the behaviour is still evident in beak-trimmed flocks eg. Lambton et al. 2010 Beak trimming - poultry Intact beak Beak trimmed Understanding tail biting and severe feather-pecking behaviour  Why does one individual start and persist in this behaviour while others in the same group do not?  Without understanding, we cannot prevent or stop "outbreaks.“  Next Slides: Using feather damage and severe feather pecking as a model (higher prevalence compared to tail biting) 18 Using feather damage and severe feather pecking as a model to understand “abnormal” behaviour in omnivores. 19 Comparisons of different studies…...are often complicated due to different methods and definitions, thresholds used, flock age at the time of recording, strains, and whether or not birds were beak trimmed Nicol et al. 2013 Different methods to assess FP Behavioural observations: labour intensive, time consuming - new technology to monitor individual birds? Ellen et al., 2019 Score 1 Physical appearence: proxy for FP, feather cover scoring often considered vulnerable to subjective scoring or interpreation; requires training to be consistent Score 2 Physical appearance: scoring methods differ in the amount of detail Head Neck scoring categories damage presence or absence a Back score 0-2 vs 0-6 a bald patches YES/NO Tail centimeters or % of body area affected Wing Breast number of body areas range from 3-11 Breast whether or not birds are captured and handled during the assessment Methods with more scoring categories and high number of body areas to be scored are more time-intensive, 22 and achieving reliability between observers is more difficult! Different flock age at the time of scoring FD in all housing systems The prevalence of FD was approximately 24% (95%CI: 15.6-36.2%). Large range shows room for improvement Likely an underestimation of the true prevalence of FD - the surveyed flocks included some that were relatively young or newly brought into lay 23 Decina et al. 2019 Different strains x feather colour Brown- and white-feathered birds differ in the amount of FP/FD Oden et al. 2002; Yamak and Sarica, 2012; de Haas et al. 2013, Decina et al. 2019 Brown-feathered birds Differences between white-and brown feathered birds are often confounded with genetic strain Under-layer of white feathers: attractive pecking substrate? Damage more easily observed White-feathered birds by scorers? McAdie and Keeling, 2000; Bright, 2007 Different definitions Feather Pulling/Feather Eating 0ettel (1873) Willimon & Morgan (1953) Richter (1954) Krapp & Newell (1959) In the 1960’s and 1970’s, Faber (1964) Motivation to perform this McKeegan & Savory (1999) behaviour was identified as a “pecking drive” Feather Pecking See Hoffmeyer, 1969 Hughes & Duncan (1972) The use of this term Hughes (1973) likely initiated a shift Hughes & Black (1974) in terminology to FP. Hughes & Whitehead (1976) Injurious Pecking Different categories of behaviour that fall under the umbrella term IP Feathered integument Unfeathered integument IP named after the consequences it can have in the form of injuries on the skin, feathers and outgrowths. Further classified in a number of ways: e.g., target area, pecking mechanism 26 Relationship between different forms of IP… Feathered integument Some evidence for a relationship Severe FP and tissue pecking (vent/toe) Hughes and Duncan, 1972; Cloutier et al. 2000; Poetzsch et al. 2001 Severe FP and aggressive pecking Bennewitz et al. 2014 Some evidence against a Unfeathered integument relationship Newberrry, 2004; Birkl et al. 2017 These relationships do not reveal the underlying causation, but appear to be aggravated by similar contributing factors, though do not necessarily occur within the same flock at the same time Feathe rcover damage Lambton et al., 2015; Newberry, 2004 Underlying causes of severe FP Multifactorial problem with many contributing factors Rodenburg et al. 2004 Approached from two angles:  The ethological view  The dysfunctional view Van Staaveren & Harlander 2021 Both approaches may underlie the development of FP, but their relative importance and interactions are unknown. 28 Ethological view Summation of internal and external stimuli can be described as the basis of motivation, which causes behaviour Mason & Bateson, 2009 Motivated behaviours are goal- oriented, stimuli-sensitive, can be learned or changed over time and depend on emotional states Dorman & Gaudiano 1995 29 Ethological view If animals are left in a highly motivated state where they can not reach a goal/achieve homeostasis, they may become frustrated and redirect that motivation to perform an undesirable behaviour. Most of the behavioural problems arise from normal motivation for species-specific behaviour Mills, 2003 30 Ethological view: Causation of severe FP redirected behaviour either from food pecking ground pecking dustbathing (Wennrich 1974) (Blokhuis 1986) (Vestergaard & Lisborg 1993) foraging behaviour Multifactorial process (genetic, rearing, nutrition, lighting, etc.) Occurs in every type of housing system Consequences can be worse in non-cage systems where outbreaks can spread more easily  Ethological view: foraging behaviour  Behaviour of animals when they are moving around in such a way that they are likely to encounter and acquire food. (Broom, 1981)  Feeding behaviour can be divided into the appetitive phase, which is the food searching phase, and the consummatory act, which is the actual consumption of the food. (Keeling, 2002) Ethological view: Unfulfilled motivation to explore  The unavailability of suitable floor substrate increases the risk of FP - emphasizes frustration and the exploration component Blokhuis, 1989; Rodenburg et al. 2004  Misperceive feathers as foraging substrate, so peck at and pluck feathers Riber, 2007  Feather eating in FP birds McKeegan & Savory, 2001; Harlander et al. 2001 Ethological view: Unfulfilled motivation to explore  This suggests severe FP may be a result of environments that lack sufficient stimuli for normal species-specific behaviour. Ethological view: Unfulfilled motivation to consume feed – specific appetite  Chickens are omnivores Variable amounts of vegetation, insects, seeds, stones, and worms are found in their crop Wood et al. 1963Wood-Gush 1972  Modern production systems provide non-naturalistic, low-fibre, homogeneous, concentrate-based diets e.g., in the form of pellets, despite evidence that coarse, fibre- rich diets can reduce severe FP van Krimpen et al. 2005 Ethological view: Unfulfilled motivation to consume feed – specific appetite  Highly motivated to ingest feathers McKeegan and Savory 1999, 2001; Harlander et al;. 2006  Work hard to obtain access to feather rewards Harlander et al. 2006  The role of feathers as a feed component is not well understood McCasland and Richardson 1966  Ethological view: Unfulfilled motivation to consume feed – specific appetite  Chopped feathers in the diet can improve Chopped feathers the feather cover of birds Kriegseis et al. 2012  Ingested feathers increase feed passage time/gastrointestinal motility, crop/gizzard distension Harlander et al. 2006; Benda 2008  Ingested feathers alter gut microbiota composition Meyer et al 2012  Similar functional benefits as insoluble fiber? Ethological view: Challenges and limitations  Explorative searching and consummatory phase  The extend to which these phases contribute, separately or combined, is still unclear.  Finally, whether a higher contribution from one phase versus the other phase gives rise to different forms of FP different management strategies requires further investigation 38 Ethological view: Challenges and limitations  FP occurs in birds with access to pasture Green et al. 2000 Suggests that motivational explanations cannot fully explain severe FP?  Different motivations (locomotion, foraging, etc.) may trigger the same behavioural outcome (walking, scratching, pecking, ….), if one of these motivations is unfulfilled, it may lead to FP  Complex environments elicit more activity/more pecking Newberry, 1995; Brandsaetter et al. 2016 Stimulating FP effect? 39 Ethological view: Challenges and limitations Motivation(s) may not explain necessarily  how FP is modified into repetitive behaviour which increases in frequency and duration over time  why FP fluctuates over time  why FP varies among individuals in similar environments  why FP cannot be completely halted 40 Ethological view: Challenges and limitations  Repeated FP might get reinforced through potential beneficial physiological and psychological consequences – highly motivated to repeatedly experience this positive outcome? Super-stimulus?  Useful consequences for gastrointestinal health (cope with discomfort), rather Large numbers of feathers than being a response to nutrient deficit on the floor? Large number of or reduced foraging time per se? feathered birds? 41 Ethological view: Challenges and limitations Social transmission and learning of FP from primary peckers to other birds suggest that foraging motivation or the super-stimulus of feathers Super-stimulus? is unlikely the root cause Large numbers of feathers on the floor? of FP in secondary peckers. Large number Can not explain whyofsevere FP is so persistent, repetitive-like, and feathered birds? involves damaging the feather cover of another bird, resulting in physical harm and distress to others. 42 Dysfunctional view: When is behaviour considered dysfunctional? ….defined as a disruption of internal psychological, biological, or developmental processes, in such a way that their function deviates from that of healthy individuals APA, 2013 causing the affected individuals to become disturbing or distressing to others or Super-stimulus? themselves Wakefield 1992 Large numbers of feathers on the floor? normal/abnormal Inadvertently constructs an artificial boundary Large number of functional/dysfunctional between what is considered feathered birds?  normal/abnormal  functional/dysfunctional 43 Dysfunctional view: severe FP? Shares similarities with developmental disorders, such as ADHD, OCD or related disorders, such as trichotillomania or skin- picking? Van Hierden et al. 2004; Kjaer, 2009; Kops et al. 2014 Prevalence of these human disorders: 0-10% Kessler et al. 2005; Polanczyk et al., 2007; Zablotzky et al., 2019 Prevalence of FP: 15-95% By-product of breeding? Few large breeding companies 44 Dysfunctional view: breeding FP is a heritable trait Wysocki et al. 2010 When genetic lines that have high or low propensity to FP are compared, the expression of genes governing the neuroendocrine, monoaminergic and immune system are distinctly different Buitenhuis et al. 2011, 2016; Flisikowski et al. 2009; Biscarini et al. 2010, Brunberg et al. 2011, 2016 Promising, but no consensus as to the genes contributing to FP 45 Dysfunctional view: general concept Social and physical adversities throughout the life span have the potential to permanently alter the neurobiology of an animal, which can lead to dysfunctional behaviour. McEwen, 2012; Lewis et al. 2007 Impact is highly dependent on adversity, duration and developmental windows in which such stressors are experienced, as well as the genetic and epigenetic landscape Kim et al. 2013; Sandi and Haller, 2015 Links between neurobiological alterations and behaviours are associations! 46 Dysfunctional view: general concept Brain is the primary organ of stress adaption McEwen, 2012 Neuroendocrine circuits: Autonomic system Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis Monoaminergic system Inflammatory markers Kim et al. 2013; Sandi and Haller, 2015, Langen et al. 2017 47 Dysfunctional view: general concept Potentially permanently altered neurochemistry/neuroanatomy in areas of the mammalian limbic & cortical-basal ganglia circuit system [functional equivalents in the avian brain] (see Güntürkun, 2005) Ziabreva et al. 2003; Whitehouse and Lewis, 2015 These changes can influence the balance between anxiety and fearfulness, mood and motor control, motivation and cognition Neural and immune function associated changes in microbiota 48 Miura et al. 2008; Langen et al. 201, Bharwani et al. 2016 Dysfunctional view: severe FP Theoretically, adverse life experiences/risk factors for severe FP can cause neurobiological changes Purposely introduced adverse social and physical environments Pharmacological and nutritiona modulation Neurobiological outcomes are categorized Use of acute stressors according to the source of adversity linked 49 to severe FP Dysfunctional view: Environmentally induced neurobiological alterations Impact on mother hens on chicks neurobiology & severe FP Perre et al. 2002; Roden and Wechsler, 1998; Riber et al. 2007; Shimmura et al. 2010; Rodenburg et al. 2009, Nordqyist et al. 2013 Social isolation & disruption of social bonds Gruss and Braun, 1996; Cheng et al. 2003; Cheng and Fahey, 2009; Dennis and Cheng, 2011, Birkl et al. 2017; 2019 Barren versus complex housing environments Patzke et al. 2009; Tahamtani et al. 2016 50 Dysfunctional view: Pharmacological and nutritional modulation of severe FP Hormones, neurotransmitters, and their respective precursors, as well as agonists and antagonists – method used and dosage impacts outcome! Diets including CORT & TRP (gentle FP?) El-Lethey et al. 2001; Savory et al. 19999; van Hierden et al., 2004; ATD Birkl et al. 2019 Dopamine and 5-HT antagonists and agonists 51 Van Hierden et al., 2004, 2005; Kjaer et al. 2004 Dysfunctional view: Use of an acute stressor Manual restraint test of a bird by a human combines social isolation with the presence of a human predator Peripheral monoamines, CORT, ANS, neurobiological changes in certain brain areas Uitdehaag et al. 2008, 2009, 2011; Kops et al. 2013, 2014; Kjaer and Jorgensen, 2011; Korte et al., 1998; Kjaer and Guemene, 2009; van Hierden et al. 2004 52 Dysfunctional view: Challenges and limitations FP-associated neurobiological findings suggest the involvement of the ANS, HPA, monoaminergic and immune system Nevertheless, inconsistent when describing the degree to which its pathway contributes to FP  Involved in a broad range of biological functions; molecules could reflect additive and interactive effects  Small number of studies  Unintended combination of chronic and acute stressors  Various genetic lines, ages  Most of these studies are not conducted on commercial farms (eliminating environmental factors) 53 Dysfunctional view: Challenges and limitations There are knowledge gaps in understanding avian brain processes and central/peripheral metabolic pathways (compared to mammals).  Differences in stress-responsive circuits? e.g., the avian hippocampus is not the primary target of stress-related hormones, unlike in mammals  Peripheral blood metabolites mirror central levels.  TRP metabolism – missing IDO-1? 54  Dysfunctional view: Challenges and limitations  Are neurobiological differences sufficient to interpret FP as dysfunctional?  Tipping point ?  Inconsistent peckers?  Neurobiological markers do Super-stimulus? not provide insight into the Large numbers of feathers molecular mechanisms that on the floor? induce the final FP Large number of feathered birds? The field of research to better understand FP through a biochemical, 55 neuroscientific lens is rich with opportunities. Future trends in research – new avenues Understanding the interplay between genetic and environmental factors (will also identify new ways of prevention and treatment) Integrating both the ethological and dysfunctional approach to understanding mechanisms of FP Exploring non-pharmacological methods to prevent/reduce FP 56 New avenues of research 57 Exams what : is behaviour definition - behacina -diff waysofrecording associative learningconditioning Classification - Class Aves Order Galliformes [chicken-like birds] Family Phasianidae Subfamily Phasianinae e.g. Genus Gallus e.g. Genus Coturnix Family Meleagrididae Meleagris gallopavo (turkey) (Mehner 1968) Hens and chickens Egg laying hens [females] raised for eggs Broiler chickens [males, females] raised for meat What is a laying hen? 6.6 billion laying hens worldwide “laying hens”: hens (females) of the species Gallus gallus which have reached laying maturity and are kept for the production of eggs which are intended to be for consumption instead of http://www.geo.de hatching Egg numbers/hen day: 334 Aviary-system Laying period: ~ 18 until 70-100 weeks of age, depending on the country 4 Backyard chickens – laying hens 5 Hybrid layers Worldwide, two breeding companies provide almost all of the hens for commercial egg production. Modern hens are the result of a cross between 4 grandparent lines. Flock & Preisinger 2007 The companies each provide a variety of genetic groups, and within these groups there are several specific brands: white layers, brown layers and, more recently, silver layers. 6 LEENSTRA, MAURER, BESTMAN, VAN SAMBEEK et al. 2012 Broiler chickens 1957 strain 1 Modern strain 1 BW42d= 578 g body weight at day 42 BW42d= 2672g Average live expectancy/slaughter age 4-7 weeks Improvements in growth rate of broiler chickens in the past 60 years Genetic selection Nutrition Havenstein et al., 2003 How many chickens are in the world? Jungle fowl – ancestors Domestic chickens Gallus gallus domesticus Red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) is the primary wild ancestor of the domestic chicken The behaviour of the modern hybrid is dates back as early as 8000 years ago not fundamentally different from Red Junglefowl multiple, independent domestication events in southern China, ancestor South Asia and Southeast Asia (Schultz & Jensen, 2001) Bennecke (2001) Morphology Feathers: defining characteristics  Avian integument – diverse outgrowths of the class AVES  Bare skin & epidermal outgrowths  Skin produces & supports feathers & comb & wattles & active in thermoregulation earlobes  Avian skin lacks sweat/sebaceous glands, contains blood vessels, free nerve endings, neuroreceptors, smooth muscles that move the feathers  Integumentary glands: Feathers diminish uropygial gland – Secretions are distally on the legs deposited on the feathers - antibacterial & antimycotic properties Toe claws & spurs (back of the - keep keratin flexible – feathers are tarsometatarsus; waterproof well-developed in males) Ear glands, vent glands Stettenheim, 2000 motivated behaviour !-exames Morphology  The bones of birds are lighter in weight than The digestive tract is relatively shorter than those of mammals. those of mammals  Metabolic rates are high to efficiently  Some are hollow - part of the avian respiratory system - pneumatic bones process food/keep the body weight low  Growth of structural trabecular and cortical No teeth, omnivores bone types continues up to the onset of sexual maturity some medullary bones Woven bone/medullary bone: acts as a source of calcium for eggshell formation gizzard hen goes out of egg laying, estrogen levels fall, osteoblasts resume structural bone formation and skeletal regeneration can take place Behaviours that matter in a given housing system  Foraging and feeding; exploration  Nesting  Perching, roosting, rest, sleep  Locomotion  Comfort behaviours e.g. preening; dustbathing  fixeoemns behaviour Exam-what is stereotypic Skinner box - operant conditioning a Operant conditioning-Skinner box reinforcement! posneg : Needs, priorities, preferences?  Behavioural needs: „ behaviours that are performed even in the absence of an optimum environment or resource. e.g. Sham-dustbathing on a wire floor – indicates it is a behavioral need as it is performed in the absence of loose litter substrate  Behavioural priorities: birds are prepared to work in order to perform or gain access to them  Behavioural preferences: indicate the relative outcomes of choice experiments“ Foraging behaviour  Behaviour of animals when they are moving around in such a way that they are likely to encounter food searching and acquire food. Nahrungssuche (Broom, 1981)  ‘contra free-loading’ tendency to work for food rather than accept ‘free’ food from a feeder Scratching /pecking behaviour (Duncan and Hughes, 1972)  Feeding behaviour can be divided consumption into the appetitive phase, which is the food searching phase, and the consummatory act, which is the actual consumption of the food. (Keeling, 2002) Foraging Food-running – feature of feeding behaviour; Birds run around with large object- chased by other birds which grab at the food – torn into edible portions  In natural conditions- 50-90% of their time foraging (Dawkins 1990)  Is a behavioural need as even through-fed hens housed Foraging/feeding is on wire-floored cages perform influenced by many other factors scratching while feeding other than internal state. Social factors!  Peat, sand, wood shavings are equally valued by hens for foraging (de Jong et al. 2005)  Foraging behaviour: cages (5%) vs. barn systems (16%) (Rodenburg et al. 2008) Exploration, investigatory behaviour  Facilitates the acquisition of information about the environment  Motivation to seek novelty for its own sake Pecking in an artificial  Motivation to seek a particular environment? resource  Chickens motivation to seek novelty – highly relevant to the topic of environmental enrichment Feather pecking See lecture 22 ANIMAL WELFARE PROBLEM IN Response to stressors? LAYING HENS BROILER BREEDERS TURKEYS See Lecture 22 Underlying causes of severe FP Multifactorial problem with many contributing factors Rodenburg et al. 2004 Approached from two angles:  The ethological view  The dysfunctional view van Staaveren & Harlander 2022 Both approaches may underlie the development of FP, but their relative importance and interactions are unknown. 18  Secluded, dark nests Nesting behaviour Manipulable materials within a nest site: ground-layers Hens prefer to lay in a discrete enclosed nest site with loose material Ability to mould the Nesting behaviour includes: nest using body and nest site investigation & selection, feet movements (Duncan & pre-laying behaviour Kite, 1989) (gathering, crouching, sitting) egg laying post lay sitting the highest ranked priority tested to date for hens and they ranking it above feed at this time! Nesting and pre-laying behaviour  Hens place a high value on access to discrete, enclosed nest sites and their behavioural priority to access one increases the closer they get to the time of egg laying.  They are prepared to pay high costs, such as squeezing Gregarious nesting – through narrow gaps or attracted to nests opening doors to get access to nest boxes where eggs/other ( Cooper & Appleby, 2003). hens are present  Hens delay egg laying when disturbed- indication of importance Nesting behaviour Commercial group nests are enclosed on three sides with front curtains and plastic grid or perches in front and the floor is usually covered with Astroturf or rubber pimple matting plastic curtains Introducing nest boxes into the latter stage Astroturf of pullet rearing helps to train hens to use nest boxes and roof reduce the number of eggs