Lecture Notes on Research Methods PDF

1 Lecture Elements 1) Intuition in Research 2) Variables in Research 3) Formal Approaches to Research  2 1) Intuition in Research Sometimes, new ideas originate unexpectedly from an observation or incident or w...

1 Lecture Elements 1) Intuition in Research 2) Variables in Research 3) Formal Approaches to Research  2 1) Intuition in Research Sometimes, new ideas originate unexpectedly from an observation or incident or while doing an experiment. This talent of individuals, the sudden stimulation to problem-solving by a new perspective, is usually denoted by the term “intuition”. An idea rises suddenly into consciousness as a solution to a problem in which one particular individual is intensely interested, something like a premonition or ‘sixth sense’. A typical feature of intuition is the thrill or ecstasy it generates.  3 1-1) Favorable Conditions for Intuition a) Define the problems correctly If the problem is clear to you, the chances of success through intuition are better. Sometimes, describing the problem to others may help, because it forces the researcher to define the problem in simple terms b) Accumulate all the needed facts Collect all the relevant information related to the problem, and try to understand the information so collected with a critical mind “Conduct a literature search”. c) Desire a solution An interest in solving the problem can promote concentration and imagination. The interest pulls us to pursue a task and persist with it despite difficulties and disappointments  4 1-1) Favorable Conditions for Intuition d) Discuss with others we may benefit from their different perspectives directly, or we may be able to combine our knowledge with theirs. When carried out in a relaxed and friendly manner, these discussions are most likely to encourage insight. e) Temporary abandonment of the problem Relax and abandon the work temporarily whenever you encounter anomalous data in your experiment or observation. These can create a favorable environment for the insight to happen.  5 1-2) Barriers to Intuition a) Distractions Both pleasant and unpleasant distractions can be unfavorable to insight. A distraction-free environment is necessary not only for insight but also for the success of research as a whole. b) Interruptions Total immersion in the problem is essential. Try to build up an interruption-free environment in the work place and the laboratory. c) Conditioned Thinking Conditioned researchers may not notice new developments contrary to their way of thinking. Often, this can prevent a person from adopting a new perspective that may be needed to solve a problem.  6 1-3) Methods to Break Free from Conditioned Thinking a) Take a temporary break Taking a temporary break from the problem and resuming it after a while allows the established notion to weaken, probably permitting a new way of thinking. b) Consult others Discussing the issue with your colleagues and friends can provide a new perspective. c) Read relevant research articles Reading relevant research articles related to the problem and gathering information from different sources help you to free from conditioned thinking  7 2) Variables in Research Research is done in different ways depending upon the characters involved and the purpose In experimental research, The way to establish a cause and effect relationship is to isolate and eliminate all the factors that might be responsible for a particular outcome and test only one factor that the researcher directly want to measure. The particular factor the researcher wants to test is a variable. For research purpose, a variable can be defined as a character, condition, or concept that can take different values, and hence measurable.  8 2) Variables in Research Considering the causal relationships Dependent Independent Extraneous Variables Variables Variables Status or Active or Attribute Variables Treatment Variables Considering the nature of variables Qualitative Quantitative Variables Variables Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous variables Variables variables Variables  9 2-1) Independent and Dependent Variables In experimental research, the independent variable, also known as experimental variable or predictor variable is the one manipulated by the investigator. Whereas the dependent variable or outcome variable is measured for reaction due to the independent variable. In certain situations, you may try to find out a relation between the characters by predicting the difficult to observe variables from easily observable ones through regression and model building. Independent variables may also differ depending upon their nature of values. They can take numerical values or text values.  10 2-2) Extraneous Variables Extraneous variables are those uncontrollable variables that may have a significant influence upon the results of a study. For example, when there is a yield increase upon the application of fertilizers, a part alone is explained by the effect of N, P, and K fertilizers; and unexplained variability occurs due to variability in other factors. Although it is impossible to eliminate all extraneous variables, by following the principles of experimentation and including a ‘control’, the experimenter can limit the influence of external variables to the minimum.  11 2-3) Status and Treatment Variables  Status or attribute variables reflect the characteristics or status of the study population. Researchers may not be able to control and manipulate them. For example, gender, age, education, body weight, and ethnicity cannot be manipulated. These attributes have already been determined and cannot be altered.  Active or treatment variables are independent variables that can be manipulated, changed, or controlled. For example, cement content in concrete mixture is an active variable.  12 2-4) Qualitative and Quantitative Variables When we consider the nature of variables, we may sometimes come across attributes that cannot be measured. For example, qualitative characters such as religion, color, and gender cannot be measured. These are the qualitative variables, also known as categorical variables. Quantitative variables are measurable, for example, height, weight, and length. For the purpose of measurements, quantitative variables are classified as continuous and discrete variables.  13 2-5) Continuous and Discrete Variables  Continuous variables have continuity in their measurement, and therefore, take any value. For example, take the case of ‘plant height’. It may range from 10 to 11 cm as 10.01, 10.1, 10.312, 10.5, 10.88, 10.9, and 10.99.  Discrete variables take only discrete or pre-assigned values. For example, the ‘size of a family’ can take only integer values such as 3, 4, 5, and 6.  14 2-6) Nominal and Ordinal Variables  Nominal variable may have one, two, or more sub-categories depending upon the extent of variation. For example, the variable ‘educational status’ can have the subcategories as non-literate, literate, matriculate, graduate, postgraduate, and doctorate.  Ordinal variables have no absolute values, but these can be arranged in either ascending or descending order according to the magnitude of variations. Ranking spaces them equally, although they may not actually be equally spaced. For example, the variable ‘agreement’ can have five subcategories as 1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-neutral, 4-agree, and 5-strongly agree.  15 3) Formal Approaches to Research According to the purpose or application of research results Basic research Applied research Evaluation research Developmental research Based on the objective of analyzing or describing the phenomenon Descriptive research Analytical research  16 3) Formal Approaches to Research Based on the nature of data collected Quantitative research Qualitative research Experimental Non-Experimental Timing of data collection Timing of the event being studied Cross- Longitudinal Prospective Retrospective sectional study study study study  17 3-1) Basic or Applied According to the purpose or application of research results, research can be broadly classified into:  Basic research: also called fundamental research or pure research, has no immediate application. It is taken up with the main objective of enhancement of knowledge.  Applied research: has immediate application. It is for practical benefits. There are two types of it: Evaluation research involves the systematic process of gathering data on the variables of interest to make decisions of relevance. Developmental research has the major function of developing effective products for use.  18 3-2) Descriptive or Analytical Descriptive research attempts to describe or identify the state of affairs, as it exists at present. It commonly employed when not much is known about a particular phenomenon. The results provide the knowledge base for potential hypothesis formation leading to detailed studies, mainly of the experimental type. Analytical research attempts to establish why the state of affairs is that way or how it came to be like that. Analytical research studies are used to describe associations and analyze them for possible cause and effect.  19 3-3) Quantitative or Qualitative Based on the nature of data collected: Quantitative research: in which the knowledge generated is based on collection of numerical data and analysis. Data analysis is mainly statistical. Most often, quantitative designs are about quantifying relationships between the independent variable and the dependent variables. Qualitative research involves the collection of data in narrative form to understand the particular phenomenon or process. Qualitative research relies primarily on qualitative measures, which include any measure where the data are not recorded in numerical form.  20 3-4) Experimental or Non-experimental For quantifying the relationships between independent and dependent variables, quantitative designs are used in two ways:  If a quantitative study can be conducted starting from the cause to the effects, it is called experimental research. In which, the independent variable can be observed, controlled, or manipulated by the investigator.  Non-experimental research is a common term where independent variables cannot be manipulated, and therefore, cannot be experimentally studied. These designs are used to describe, differentiate, or examine associations between variables.  21 3-5) Cross-sectional or Longitudinal Non-experimental designs can be classified based on the timing of data collection as cross-sectional or longitudinal:  In a cross-sectional study, data on the recognized variables are collected one point in time, and the relationships between them are decided.  In a longitudinal study, data are collected at different points over time.  22 3-6) Retrospective or Prospective Non-experimental studies are classified based on the timing of the event being studied as prospective or retrospective:  If the researcher gathers data at a particular time in the present and traces the differences into the past, it is a retrospective study.  if the investigator starts to observe in the present and wait for the results in the future, it is a prospective study