Learning Strategies PDF

Learning Strategies ​ dr Magdalena Wawrzyniak-Śliwska The Behaviourist Approach ​ repetition, stimulus and response ​ 1927 – Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning ​ publicly observable responses – objectively perceived, recorded and measured the scientific method ​...

Learning Strategies ​ dr Magdalena Wawrzyniak-Śliwska The Behaviourist Approach ​ repetition, stimulus and response ​ 1927 – Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning ​ publicly observable responses – objectively perceived, recorded and measured the scientific method ​ no interest in consciousness, intuition, thinking, concept formation or the acquisition of knowledge ​ Typical behaviouristic model – -​ classical and operant conditioning -​ scheduling and reinforcing (positive and negative) -​ rote verbal learning -​ instrumental learning -​ discrimination learning Classical conditioning ​ Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, and his dog ​ focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviours ​ involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex ​ animal conditioning: -​ repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food ​ OPERANT CONDITIONING -​ B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist -​ reinforcement or punishment after a behaviour -​ focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors ​ Reinforcement -​ Positive reinforcement is the addition of a positive outcome to strengthen behaviour. -​ Negative reinforcement is the removal of a negative outcome to strengthen a behaviour. -​ Positive punishment involves applying an undesirable stimulus to weaken a behaviour -​ Negative punishment involves taking away a desired stimulus to weaken a behaviour. Scheduling ​ Variable-Ratio Schedule -​ Reinforcement provided after a varying number of responses -​ Delivery schedule unpredictable -​ Examples include slot machines, door-to-door sales, video games ​ Fixed-Ratio Schedule -​ Reinforcement provided after a set number of responses -​ Delivery schedule predictable -​ Examples include production line work, grade card rewards, sales commissions “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ John B. Watson 1 What is a habit? ​ a settled or regular tendency or practice, especially one that is hard to give up (OP) ​ a thing that you do often and almost without thinking, especially something that is hard to stop doing (OLD) ​ a tendency to do the same things that one has always done (CUP) ​ something that you do regularly or usually, often without thinking about it because you have done it so many times before (LDOCE) Do we need habits? -​ Efficiency -​ Consistency -​ Goal achievement -​ Health and wellness -​ Time management -​ Stress reduction -​ Skills development -​ (https://www.brownhealth.org/be-well/why-habits-can-be-good-thing) How are habits formed? STIMULUS → RESPONSE → REINFORCEMENT→ HABIT Habit Loop ​ THE CUE -​ triggers the routine -​ usually related to specific emotions, people, locations, and times. -​ almost anything -​ a visual cue – seeing a snack, commercial -​ a place -​ the time of day -​ some emotions -​ some thought -​ some people ​ ROUTINE -​ the behaviour itself -​ some routines are very simple -​ some are very complicated ​ REWARD -​ strengthens / reinforces the habit -​ pleasure -​ pride -​ satisfaction -​ food -​ drugs -​ ​ You cannot get rid of a habit. -​ You can only alter it. 2 How to change the habit ​ Identify the routine -​ the most visible element of the loop -​ this is the element we want to change ​ Experiment with rewards -​ rewards satisfy your desires -​ difficult to identify -​ test different rewards -​ after testing a particular reward write down the first three things that come to your mind -​ after 15 min – ask yourself if you still desire the first reward ​ Isolate the trigger/cue -​ place -​ time -​ emotions -​ other people -​ what happened straight before ​ Have a plan -​ implement the new routine Social Learning Theory ​ Piaget – individual cognitive development – a solitary act ​ Vygotsky – social interaction is foundational in cognitive development -​ ZPD -​ More knowledgeable others ​ people can learn – directly and indirectly, by observing others -​ Three stages: -​ Focussing attention on a model -​ Observation of the model’s behaviour -​ The subject analyses and codes the learning -​ Scaffolding -​ Spiral curriculum -​ Affective aspect Cognitive Approach to Learning ​ the role of the active mind in processing learning opportunities and developing engagement with knowledge ​ John Dewey – (1859-1952) American philosopher and educator who was a cofounder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer in functional psychology, an innovative theorist of democracy, and a leader of the progressive movement in education in the United States. ​ learning involves learning to think and reflection (+learning from reflection) ​ problem solving ​ Progressive Education – the aim to educate the ‘whole child’, attending to physical, emotional and intellectual growth; learners should be active and experience the things they are to learn -​ learning must be meaningful for the learner -​ experiential learning – learning through reflection and doing 3  ​ David A. Kolb - an American psychologist, professor and educational theorist. -​ experiential learning. -​ his learning styles model was one of the first tools for evaluating individual learning preferences ​ research has confirmed that his theory is still the most commonly cited source in relation to reflective learning, because: -​ It appeared to be grounded in reality – it was vocational – and denied the ‘artificiality of the classroom’. -​ It focused on the learner – it was learner-centred (which in 1984, made it ‘cutting-edge’). -​ It advocated learning from ‘experience’ and learning by doing. -​ It appeared to empower the learner, who could dispense with ‘tutor control’. -​ Its model for learning mimicked true discovery, which at a stroke removed the ‘artificial’ distinction between research and learning. Kolb’s learning styles ​ Diverging (CE/RO) -​ People with a diverging learning style -​ perform better in situations that require idea-generation and explain multiple ideas and concepts in mind, -​ are able to look at things from different perspectives, -​ have broad cultural interests and like to gather information, -​ love to gather information and use their imagination to solve problems, -​ tend to excel in humanities, social sciences and liberal arts, -​ prefer to work in groups, as group work helps them to listen with an open mind and receive personal feedback, -​ assess concrete experiences from various perspectives and take interest in other individuals, -​ prefer to watch or feel rather than do. Based on this, their learning preferences are concrete experience (CE) and reflective observation (RO). ​ Assimilating (AC/RO) -​ People with an assimilating learning style -​ take a concise and logical approach to learning, emphasise reasoning, -​ consider ideas and concepts more important than people, -​ need clear explanations and demonstrations instead of practical learning opportunities, -​ excel at understanding a wide range of information and organising it in a logical format, -​ tend to be more attracted to logically sound theories, -​ often focus on careers in mathematics and science, -​ are very good at assimilating diverse observations into a concise, logical theory or explanation, -​ tend to be more interested in the soundness and precision of ideas rather than in their practical value, -​ are great at reviewing data and assessing experiences as a whole, -​ prefer reading, lectures, exploring analytical models and having the time to think and analyse information. -​ ‘think and watch’. After all, the individual’s learning characteristics are abstract 4  conceptualisation (AC) and reflective observation (RO). ​ Converging (AC/AE) -​ People with a converging learning style -​ tend to converge on the answers they want, -​ have a preference for abstract conceptualisation (AC) and active experimentation (AE), -​ ‘think and do’, -​ are good problem solvers and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They can then apply their ideas to new experiences, -​ tend to prefer technical tasks and are often less concerned with interpersonal activities, -​ focus on experimenting with new ideas and working with practical applications, -​ excel at tasks that require the identification of the single best answer. (did you know, these tasks are typical in conventional tests of intelligence?), -​ are very good at applying theories and abstract concepts to real-world problems and practical situations, -​ tend to prefer instructional techniques like workbooks or worksheets, computer-based tasks and interactive activities that require problem-solving. ​ Accommodating (CE/AE) -​ People with a accomodating learning style -​ prefer ‘hands-on’ experiences where they can rely on intuition rather than logic, -​ ‘feel and do’ and prefer concrete experience (CE) and active experimentation (AE), -​ prefer to take a practical and experiential approach where they can discover the answers for themselves. This sometimes includes trial and error, rather than engaging in logical analysis. -​ are very good at doing things and making things happen, -​ take initiative, set goals and actively work to achieve them, even if that means relying on their ‘gut’ instinct rather than analysis, -​ are not afraid of challenges, as they seek new experiences and opportunities, -​ are often able to alter their path based on the circumstances and generally have good people skills, -​ tend to perform well in fields such as business, sales and marketing. -​ prefer instructional techniques that allow them to actively engage in a task and promote independent discovery and thinking. Criticism of Kolb’s theory ​ Critiques of Kolb’s ELT (Smith 2001) ‘1. It pays insufficient attention to the process of reflection (see Boud et al 1985). 2. The claims made for the four different learning styles are extravagant (Jarvis 1987; Tennant 1997). 3. The model takes very little account of different cultural experiences/ conditions (Anderson 1988). 4. The idea of stages or steps does not sit well with the reality of thinking. There is a problem here - that of sequence. As Dewey (1933) has said in relation to reflection a number of processes can occur at once, stages can be jumped. This way of presenting things is rather too neat and is simplistic. 5. Empirical support for the model is weak (Jarvis 1987; Tennant 1997). The initial research base was small, and there have only been a limited number of studies that have sought to test or explore the model (such as Jarvis 1987). 6. The relationship of learning processes to knowledge is problematic (Jarvis, 1987).’ 5 B.S. Bloom (1913-1999) – how to restructure teaching to maximise learners’ performance ​ cognitive domain (processing information) ​ affective domain (attitudes and feelings) ​ psychomotor domain (physical skills) Progression form Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) to Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Bloom’s taxonomy: ​ progressing through 6 levels of increasing complexity ​ encourages Ss to engage with knowledge at a deeper and more interactive level ​ interdependence of the various levels Knowledge- remembering -​ Rote factual knowledge of specific terminology, ways and means (i.e., conventions, trends, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology), universal axioms and/or abstractions accepted by the field or discipline (principles and generalizations, theories and structures). Behavioral Learning Outcome -​ Ability to recall appropriate, learned information on command. Cognitive Learning Outcome -​ Lowest level of learning outcomes. Teaching/Learning Methods: -​ Lecture, Memorization, Readings, Podcast, Video, Web information Key Phrases for Assessment -​ arrange, define, describe, duplicate, enumerate, identify, label, list, match, memorize, name, order, read, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce, record, select, state, view, write Formative Assessments -​ Q & A using clickers or not (Questions are convergent, limited answers) -​ Student recitations -​ Jeopardy-like games Summative Assessments -​ Exam items of the form: define, label, list, reproduce. -​ Items are convergent, limited answers. Example Assessment -​ Label the parts of the human eye. https://fctl.ucf.edu/ Comprehension -​ Understanding the meaning of information and materials. Behavioral Learning Outcome -​ Being able to translate materials from one form or format to another by explaining or summarizing and predicting consequences or effects. Cognitive Learning Outcome -​ Represents the lowest level of understanding and interpretation of rote factual information. Key Phrases for Assessment -​ classify, cite, convert, describe, discuss, estimate, explain, express, generalize, give examples, identify, illustrate, indicate, locate, make sense out of, paraphrase, recognize, report, restate (in own words), review, select, summarize, trace, translate, understand 6 Teaching/Learning Methods: -​ Readings, Graphic Organizers, Demonstration, Discussion Formative Assessments -​ Q & A (oral, clickers, one-minute papers) -​ - Questions are convergent, limited answers. -​ Student presentations or demonstrations within small groups (peer reviews); face to face, podcasts, videos, role play) -​ Think-Pair-Share Summative Assessments -​ Exam items of the form: describe, explain, summarize, identify or select -​ Items are convergent, limited answers. -​ Student Presentations for instructor or evaluator (face to face, podcasts, videos, role play) Example Assessment -​ Trace the path the stimulus takes from the time light enters the eye to processing in the visual cortex. https://fctl.ucf.edu/ Application -​ Using information and materials to solve new problems or respond to concrete situations that have a single or best answer. Behavioral Learning Outcome -​ Applying learned material such as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Cognitive Learning Outcome -​ Learning outcomes demonstrate a higher level of understanding of the mechanics of employing information to a purpose than comprehension. Key Phrases for Assessment -​ act, administer, apply, articulate, assess, chart, choose, collect, compute, construct, contribute, control, demonstrate, determine, develop, discover, dramatize, employ, establish, extend, illustrate, implement, include, inform, instruct, interpret, operate, operationalize, participate, practice, predict, prepare, preserve, produce, project, provide, relate, report, schedule, show, sketch, solve, teach, transfer, use, utilize, write Teaching/Learning Methods: -​ Demonstrate problem-solving (Case Studies, text problems, scenarios) -​ Demonstrate application of rules, laws, or theories (Case Studies, text problems, scenarios) -​ Demonstrate methods or procedures -​ Practice in multiple contexts Formative Assessments -​ Student demonstrations within small groups (peer reviews) -​ Q & A (oral, clickers, one-minute papers) Questions may be convergent or divergent. -​ Video student demonstrations and follow with self-evaluation Summative Assessments -​ Student presentation for instructor or evaluator. (Live, video, podcast) -​ Exam items of the form: apply, use, solve, demonstrate, employ -​ Problem set Example Assessment -​ Apply the Opponent Processes color theory to predict how the world appears to the major varieties of color blindness and color vision anomaly. *​ https://fctl.ucf.edu/ 7 Analysis -​ Decomposing materials into their component parts so they can be examined and understood. Behavioral Learning Outcome -​ The student is able to develop multiple conclusions concerning the motives, causes, inferences and generalizations that can be derived from the material’s component parts and organization. Cognitive Learning Outcome -​ Learning outcomes involve a comprehension and understanding of the content and structure of the material. Key Phrases for Assessment -​ analyze, appraise, break down, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, correlate, criticize, diagram, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, focus, illustrate, infer, limit, outline, point out, prioritize, question, recognize, separate, subdivide, test Teaching/Learning Methods -​ Case Studies, Simulations (Computer-based, mannequins, part task trainers, role plays), Discussion, Labs, Graphic Organizers Formative Assessments -​ Student presentation within small group (peer review) -​ Q & A (oral, clickers, one-minute papers) Questions may be convergent or divergent. -​ Graphic Organizers Summative Assessments -​ Exam items of the form: analyze, compare, distinguish, examine, test (Take home, online, or face to face) -​ Portfolio entries focused on analyzing case studies or clinical experiences. -​ Essays -​ Student presentations Example Assessment -​ Compare and contrast Helmholtz’s (1865) “Place Theory” to Rutherford’s (1886) “Frequency Theory”. *​ https://fctl.ucf.edu/ Evaluation -​ Judging value of materials based on personal values/opinions or definite criteria. Concerned with evaluating material to determine if it fulfills given purpose. Criteria may be internal (organization; defined by student) or external (relevant to the purpose; provided to student). Behavioral Learning Outcome -​ Student is able to produce an end product that fulfills a given purpose rather than being right/wrong. Cognitive Learning Outcome -​ Learning outcomes highest because it contains all other categories and includes value judgments based on clearly defined criteria. Key Phrases for Assessment -​ appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, core, criticize, critique, decide, defend, estimate, evaluate, interpret, judge, justify, predict, rate, reframe, select, support, value Teaching/Learning Methods -​ Demonstrate process for evaluating research reports based on criteria -​ Case Studies – Small group discussions of appropriateness of procedures, results -​ Debates Formative Assessments -​ Small group discussions -​ Q & A (oral, clickers, one-minute papers) Questions may be convergent or divergent. 8  -​ Debates Summative Assessments -​ Exam items of the form: evaluate, argue, assess, defend, judge, predict, rate, support -​ Student presentations Example Assessment -​ Evaluate the ADA guidelines in light of what you have learned about blindness and critique its strengths and weaknesses. Do you believe the guidelines are effective? Why or why not? -​ https://fctl.ucf.edu/ Creation -​ Using new and creative applications of prior knowledge and skills. Behavioral Learning Outcome -​ The student’s ability to produce a new or original end product. Examples include a unique communication, plan of operations (research proposal), or abstract relations (information classification scheme). Cognitive Learning Outcome -​ Learning outcomes emphasize creativity and the creation of unique patterns or structures. Key Phrases for Assessment -​ adapt, anticipate, arrange, assemble, collaborate, collect, combine, communicate, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, devise, express, facilitate, formulate, generate, hypothesize, incorporate, individualize, initiate, integrate, intervene, invent, manage, model, modify, negotiate, organize, plan, prepare, progress, propose, rearrange, reconstruct, reinforce, reorganize, revise, set up, structure, substitute, validate, write Teaching/Learning Methods -​ Research/Labs, Plan development, Multiple Case Studies – Class or small group discussions assembling relevant information to produce a hypothesis, plan to address recurring problems, Interviews with experts Formative Assessments -​ Small group discussions -​ Student presentations in small groups -​ Q & A (oral, clickers, one-minute papers) Questions may be convergent or divergent. Summative Assessments -​ Exam items of the form: develop, plan, prepare, propose, construct, design, formulate, create, assemble -​ Portfolio -​ Design and build a model -​ Create a work of art -​ Develop a unique plan to serve some purpose -​ Student presentations Example Assessment -​ Choose a perceptual disorder and create a device that would mitigate its effects. *​ https://fctl.ucf.edu/ Update to Bloom’s Taxonomy Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) ​ Factual Knowledge: Basic elements of a discipline that a student must know and be able to work with to solve problems including basic terminology and specific details and elements. ​ Conceptual Knowledge: Interrelationships between basic factual knowledge that demonstrate how elements work together, for example, classifications and categories, principles and generalizations, and theories, models, and structures. ​ Procedural Knowledge: How something is done including the methods of inquiry, skills, algorithms, 9  techniques, and methods needed to investigate, apply, or analyze information. ​ Metacognitive Knowledge: Awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition including strategies for learning, contextual and conditional knowledge about cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge What do we know about learning? ​ New definition of learning -​ Linking ‘new’ knowledge with ‘old’ knowledge -​ Making associations -​ Drawing analogies -​ Comparing and contrasting ​ Learning and memory -​ Memory -​ in popular culture, memory is often thought of as some kind of physical thing that is stored in the brain (Zlotnik Vansintjan, 2019) or a storage place for memory boxes -​ another definition: memory is chemical process between neurons, which is not static. When you try to remember something, new neurone connections are forming -​ in psychology memory is defined as the faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving information (Squire, 2009). -​ How do you put things in your memory? Where is the memory box? -​ Memory – yet another definition -​ Return to the state of brain activation which was present, when something happened. -​ If you experienced something, you felt emotions, then you remember more. -​ Memory and hippocampus -​ Remembering is not possible without the hippocampus. -​ It plays important roles in: -​ the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory, -​ spatial memory that enables navigation. -​ Memory and amygdala -​ Amygdala is the integrative centre for -​ emotions, -​ emotional behaviour, -​ motivation -​ Amygdala hijack -​ 3xF -​ Fight -​ Flight -​ Freeze Three categories of memory ​ sensory ​ short-term ​ long-term How to move information from the short-term memory to the long-term memory? ​ You learn when -​ you revise regularly, but over a more extended period of time 10  -​ Spaced repetition learning (Distributed Practice) ​ You learn when you make pauses and have a rest -​ Go for a walk -​ Look through the window -​ Watch one episode of your favourite TV series -​ Have a nap -​ Eat something … ​ You learn when you do sports: -​ cycling, swimming, jogging, Nordic walking, boxing, horse riding, -​ your favourite sport … ​ You learn when you get enough sleep -​ Your brain sorts and processes the day’s information. -​ Knowledge linked to sth – stays. -​ Unrelated knowledge – goes to the bin. -​ How much sleep do we need? -​ 7-9 hours of uninterrupted sleep per night ​ You learn when you eat well. -​ What do you like eating? Is it good for you? -​ What is healthy eating? -​ Do not get thirsty -​ Do not skip breakfast -​ Base your meals on higher fibre starchy carbohydrates. -​ Eat lots of fruit and veg -​ Eat more fish, including a portion of oily fish -​ Cut down on saturated fat and sugar -​ Eat less salt: no more than 6g a day for adults Two modes of learning ​ Mode ON – focused mode 1.​ Log out from your life 2.​ Switch off your mobile 3.​ Turn off your communicators 4.​ Close the door 5.​ pomodoro technique PROCESS not PRODUCT 6.​ Smaller chunks 7.​ Start with difficult bits 8.​ Never start again from the beginning 9.​ Brain thinks with pictures – make associations 10.​ Study in different places 11.​ Be dynamic and flexible 12.​ Study with other people – form learning groups 13.​ Teach others 14.​ Use flashcards ​ Mode OFF – defuse mode -​ You take a rest, your brain still works -​ Reward yourself for the 25 minutes of intensive work 11 Procrastination ​ Habit ​ Cheating ​ Excuses ​ Pleasure ​ Good solution? -​ Long-term effect – a disaster How to fight procrastination? ​ Get in control! Habit schema: ​ Trigger ​ Routine ​ Prize Plan ​ Short-term goals ​ Long-term goals ​ Make a plan a day before Myths ​ Learning styles – visual, auditory, kinesthetic, etc ​ Dale’s cone 12