Learning Strategies PDF

INTRODUCTIO Interests in leaming strategies began with the publication of papers collectively known as the "good language learner stadies (see Cohen & Weaver, 1998). Since then, hundreds of studies have been generated that look at different aspects of learning strategies and their roles in lang...

INTRODUCTIO Interests in leaming strategies began with the publication of papers collectively known as the "good language learner stadies (see Cohen & Weaver, 1998). Since then, hundreds of studies have been generated that look at different aspects of learning strategies and their roles in language learning. In an effort to make sense of the huge database and numerous research findings in this area, Oxford (1990), in Cohen & Weaver, 1998) differentiates hurning strategies into the following categories. COGNITIVE Cognitive strategies involve the identification, retention, and retrieval of language elements. For example, students may use memory-enhancing strategies (eg, the keyword method) to help them remember new words. METACOGNITIVE Strategies of this type deal with the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of language learning activities. For example, students muy develop a plan for monitoring their progress T by constantly comparing their current level of proficiency with the course goals outlined in the curriculum AFFECTIVE Affective strategies are those that serve to regulate emotions, attitudes, and motivation. For example, students may read linguistically simplified books to develop a positive attitude toward reading materials. Leaming Strategies SOCIAL These strategies refer to actions leamers take to interact with users of the language. For example, students may deliberately seek out opportunities to use the target language with native speakers of the language. Language learning strategies remain an active area of research. Despite extensive re search, many theoretical and practical issues still need to be addressed. In the first article in this section, Oxford surveys recent learning strategy research with a view to identifying instructional implications that can be derived from this body of research. The implications of learning-strategy research for ESL instruction are, Oxford suggests, quite considerable, given evidence which shows that appropriate use of learning strategies can result in in- creased 1.2 proficiency. Although our knowledge of learning strategies is still not complete, the research to date Muggests the following implications:  Strategy maining should form an integral part of regular classroom events. Strategy instruction should he embedded in meaningful communicative Students should he taught how to identify and analyze their preferred learning strategies by means of diaries, learning journals, interviews, and surveys. Teachers should provide explicit explanation and toodeling of strategy use, and provide ample opportunities for practice. Strategy training takes time It may take months or even years to be able to use learning strategies effectively, Oxford concludes by saying that teachers routinely conduct research in their own classroom to better understand the numerous factors which affect the choice and skillful use of learning strategies The second article, by Nunun, describes an action research project designed to find out ways to make madents more active in their learning and to make them more aware of the language learning processes to that they can have a greater control over their own learning. Nunan demonstrates that tasks and activities that encourage learners to reflect on their own learning can and should be incorporated in the curriculum, as these can help leamers develop skills in self-checking, monitoring, and evaluation - skills students need I to become strategic and independent learners. In addition, by the end of the research project, the students were more concerned with how to learn rather than with what to learn, with the communicative dimensions of language learning rather than with the grammar of the language, and with discourse errors rather than with sentence errors. Also, as a result of the awareness of their purpose of learning English, students were more eager to seek opportunities to use English beyond the classroom. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Before Reading What are learning strategies? What do you think are the roles of learning strategies in second.1 language learning? Rehearsal is a memory strategy most often employed by second language learners. How effective.2 is this strategy?  Some students report using a memory-enhancing strategy known as mnemonics (e.g.. the.3 keyword method). How useful is this strategy for vocabulary learning? Describe the strategies you used when learning a second or foreign language. Which strategies.4 contributed most to your proficiency in the language? In second language learning, what strategies are considered good and what strategies are.5 considered less effective? Give some examples. Can learning strategies be taught? Explain your answer..6 What are the differences between successful and less successful learners in terms of.7 strategy use? Do successful learners use more strategies? Do younger and older learners use the same or similar strategies? Which strategies are useful for.8 each group of learners? After Reading How do you find out about the strategies that your students use? Suggest ways of identifying your.1 students' learning strategies. Which one is the most practical for classroom teachers? Review the article by Nunan. What are the key findings of the study described by Nunan?.2 Design a similar study utilizing the same procedures outlined by design, include the following:.3 research questions profile of your students (age, proficiency level, purpose of 1 instruments (e.g., questionnaire, test) research procedures length of the study What t do you think are the strategies that good language learners use to.4 skills in reading, writing, listening, speaking, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar? Select three good strategies each for reading, writing, listening, speaking,.5 pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Suggest ways of teaching those strategies in  your lessons. Learner autonomy is an important goal in many ESL programs. In what ways can.6 strategy training help students develop autonomy? Review the article by Oxford and define the following concepts:.7.8 cognitive strategy metacognitive strategy Also discuss how the two types of strategies can be exploited to enhance second language learning. According to Oxford, what are some of the most important implications of learning-strategy research for second language instruction? Do you agree with Oxford? Further Reading Cohen, A. D., & Weaver, S. J. (1998). Strategies-based instructions for second language learners. In W. A. Renandya & G. M. Jacobs (Eds.), Learners and language learning (pp. 1-25). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. TEACHING GRAMMAR The role of grammar is perhaps one of the most controversial issues in language teaching. In the early parts of the twentieth century, grammar teaching formed an essential part of language instruction, so much so that other aspects of language learning were either ignored or downplayed. The argument was that if you knew the grammatical rules of the language, you would be able to use it for communication. This concept was strongly challenged in the early 1970s. Knowledge of the grammatical system of the language, it was argued, was but one of the many components which underlay the notion of communicative competence. To be considered a competent user of a language, one needs to know not only the rules of grammar, but also how the rules are used in real communication. During this period, grammar teaching became less prominent, and in some cases, was abandoned. In recent years, grammar teaching has regained its rightful place in the language cur- riculum. People now agree that grammar is too important to be ignored, and that without a good knowledge of grammar, learners' language development will be severely constrained. There is now a general consensus that the issue is not whether or not we should teach gram- mar. The issue now centers on questions such as, Which grammar items do learners need T most? How do we go about teaching grammar items in. the most effective way? Are they best taught inductively or deductively? In this section, we consider classroom approaches to the teaching of grammar. Although there is no one best method of teaching grammar and we have to do more research to investigate the effectiveness of the many different tech- niques advocated by methodologists we do know what constitutes sound approaches to the teaching of grammar. In the first article, Swan invites us to reflect on what grammar we teach and why we teach it. He identifies a number of reasons for grammar teaching which do not conform to Teaching Grammar sound pedagogical principles. For example, teachers often teach grammar simply because it is "easy" to teach and to test. Some attempt to teach the whole grammatical system, thinking that it is both feasible and desirable. As a consequence, we have students who may know a lot of grammar but who are unable to use their knowledge for any practical communicative purposes. Swan suggests that the teaching of grammar should be determined by the needs of the students. Thus, the selection of grammar items to be taught must depend on learners' aims in learning English. Furthermore, the teaching of grammar should be based on the principles of comprehensibility and acceptability. The second article by Richards examines the assumptions underlying a task-based approach to teaching and identifies some of the practical difficulties that can arise. The most serious of these is the potential for students to perform a task with a poor level of grammatical accuracy, since they can often use communication strategies to bypass some of the language difficulties task performance involves. The result may be that task work develops fluency at the expense of accuracy and leads to the development of fossilized errors that may be difficult to eradicate. In order to address this issue, Richards draws on the work of Skehan and others to examine how a focus on grammatical accuracy can be built into the use of tasks. This involves adding a language-awareness dimension to tasks prior to, during, or after task performance. The last article, by Ellis, explores the role of practice and consciousness-raising in grammar teaching. Although practice has a role to play in language learning, Ellis maintains that its value is rather limited. He argues that the available evidence seems to suggest that practice, be it controlled, contextualized, or communicative, may not be as effective as people claim it is. Consciousness-raising, on the other hand, offers an attractive alternative to traditional grammar practice. Through carefully designed consciousness-raising activi- ties, learners will develop an explicit knowledge of the grammar of the language which facilitates their ability to communicate. Ellis admits, however, that this approach to grammar instruction has its limitations. It may not be  appropriate for young learners or beginners. ppropriate DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Before Reading I in order to be able to communicate comfortably in a second or foreign language? How much grammar does one need.1 Some people claim that grammar is not very important as long as you can get your message across in the language you are studying. Do you agree with this statement? What has been your experience in learning the grammar of a second language?.3 How do you go about teaching grammar? How do you decide which grammar points.4 to present first, second, and so on? Is grammar best taught in isolation or in context? Explain your answer..5 Does one have to consciously know the rules of grammar? Why or why not? How do you correct your students' grammar mistakes? Give at least three different techniques you usually employ in your teaching After Reading Swan lists seven had reasons for teaching grammar. Do you agree with him? Add a few more bad.1 reasons to his list. What does Swan mean by comprehensibility and acceptability? Design an activity that.2 incorporates these two principles of grammar teaching Observe learners carrying out a task. To what extent does their performance illustrate the.3 features of tasks listed by Richards? Choose an example of a task and plan how it will be used in the classroom. Suggest how an accuracy component can be incorporated into the task either before, during, or after task completion, as discussed by Richards. What are the goals of grammar-focused instruction according to task-based language teaching?.5 Design an activity that promotes conscious noticing of certain grammatical features..6 What do you think is the role of grammar practice? Do you agree with Ellis that practice has a.7 limited value in grammar learning?  What are some of the strengths and limitations of the approach advocated by.8 Examine an ESL, textbook series and see how grammar ris dealt with. What grammar items are.9 included? How are they presented? On what hasis are they selected? What are the principles used to sequence these grammar items? To what extent do the exercises link grammar to communicative interaction? Some applied linguists suggest that grammar is best learned incidentally example, extensive.10 reading. Do you agree? through, for ?Should grammar be taught separately or integrated into speaking, reading, and writing.11