Endocrine System PDF

TRANS: Module 1 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM PINEAL GLAND...

TRANS: Module 1 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM PINEAL GLAND  also called “ Pineal body or epiphysis cerebri”  located beneath the back part of the corpus callosum  secretes the hormone : Melatonin  help control the circadian cycle of sleep and wakefulness  shaped like a “tiny pinecone” PITUITARY GLAND  Small pea-sized endocrine gland  Located at the base of your brain below your hypothalamus  Also known as “hypophysis”  Divided into two main sections: the anterior and posterior pituitary  Anterior pituitary makes and releases the following hormones: ACTH, FSH, growth hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, thyroid-stimulating hormone MENINGES  Posterior pituitary: Antidiuretic hormone  Meninges are connective tissue membranes that surround (vasopressin), oxytocin the spinal cord and brain Meningeal layers:  Dura mater - the most superficial and thickest membrane (composed of dense irregular connective tissue); lines inner surface of skull by its fusion with periosteum; separated from the arachnoid by potential subdural space  Arachnoid mater - delicate thin cobweb like membrane; attaches to pia mater by trabeculae; subarachnoid space is filled with CSF  Pia Mater - soft thin membrane; lines brain and spinal cord extending into all fissures and sulci; extends around blood vessels throughout brain PANCREAS  Main function: maintain healthy blood sugar levels and help Meningeal spaces: with digestion  Epidural space - between the bone and dura mater  Both an organ and gland  Subdural space - between the dura mater and arachnoid  Large gland that lies alongside the stomach mater  Performs two main functions: Exocrine & Endocrine  Subarachnoid space - between the arachnoid mater and  Hormones: Insulin , Glucagon, somatostatin & pia mater pancreatic polypeptide  Cells: Beta cells & Alpha cells  Interspersed with the exocrine cells are clusters of endocrine cells called pancreatic islets or the islets of Langerhans MARUHOM 13  TRANS: Module 1 OVARIES PARATHYROID GLAND  Small , oval-shaped glands  small glands in the neck located behind the thyroid gland  Located on either side of the uterus  Main Hormone: Parathyroid hormone  Hormones: Estrogen, Progesterone  Main Function: Regulate calcium levels in the blood  Estrogen promotes the development of female characteristics and also contributes to the development of reproductive system  After ovulation, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Progesterone in combination with estrogen helps maintain the uterine lining during pregnancy HYPOTHALAMUS  acts as your body’s smart control coordinating center TESTES  main function: is to keep your body in a stable state called  two oval-shaped male reproductive glands homeostasis  Lie behind the penis in a pouch of skin called Scrotum  Makes some hormones itself that are stored elsewhere (in  Main Function: to produce sperm & produce hormones your posterior pituitary)  Main Hormone: Testosterone  Secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormones in the pituitary gland, in addition to controlling water balance, sleep, temperature, appetite and blood pressure THYROID GLAND  located at the front of the neck just below the larynx  butterfly-shaped  Main function: Regulate the body’s metabolic rate, growth and development  Main hormones: thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine(T3) ADRENAL GLAND  located on top of your kidneys  adrenal medulla – consists of modified neurons and functions as part of the sympathetic nervous system  adrenal cortex – glandular tissue and secrets steroid hormones called corticosteroids  Main Hormones: Cortisol, Aldosterone & Adrenaline  Main Function: Regulate several bodily functions including metabolism, blood pressure and body’s response to stress MARUHOM 14  TRANS: Module 1  Ventricle pump arterial blood out of the heart (high pressure chambers)  The heart has two functional circuits, the right heart (right atrium and right venticle) is the pulmonary circuit pump.  The left heart (left atrium and left ventricle) is the systemic circuit pump.  The heart is aligned obliquely within the thorax, with an apex directed downward, forward, and to the left.  Left ventricle forms the apex of the heart. Lies at the level of the fifth left intercostal space from the midline.  Heart wall composed of the three layers of tissue: Epicardium (superficial layer), Myocardium (thick, middle layer of the heart), Endocardium (lines the inner surface and forms the internal layer of the heart)  Heart Valves: Tricuspid valve, mitral valve, pulmonary valve and aortic valve.  Internal Septum separates the right and left atrium THYMUS  Interventricular Septum separates the right and left ventricles.  Small gland part of the lymphatic system  The series of changes that take place within it as it fills with  Main Hormones: Thymopoietin, Thymosin and thymulin blood and empties is referred to as the cardiac cycle & thymic humoral factor  Heart consists of two muscular pumps act in series, dividing into two components: the pulmonary and systemic circulation.  Systemic circulation – transports O2 blood to the tissues and brings CO2 blood back to the right side of the heart  Pulmonary circulation – transports CO2 to lungs and brings fresh O2 to the left side of the heart  Right ventricle propels low-oxygen blood  Left ventricle propels the oxygen-rich blood MEDIASTINUM  The heart lies obliquely in the mediastinum, with its base directed posteriorly and slightly superiorly and its apex directed anteriorly and slightly inferiorly  Divided into two areas: Super mediastinum & inferior mediastinum  Anterior mediastinum – immediately at the back of the body of the sternum CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM  Middle mediastinum – posterior portion of the anterior HEART mediastinum, you will find the heart here  Posterior mediastinum – posterior of the middle  Shaped like a blunt cone mediastinum, in front of the thoracic verterbra  Located in the mediastinum  Apex – blunt, rounded point of the heart  Base – larger, flat part at the opposite end of the heart  four chambers (two atria and two ventricles)  Atria receive venous blood (low pressure chambers) MARUHOM 15  TRANS: Module 1 HEART WALL Epicardium  Visceral pericardium  Superficial layer of the heart  The serous pericardium is called the epicardium when considered a part of the heart and the visceral pericardium when considered a part of the pericardium Myocardium  Thick, middle layer of the heart  Composed of cardiac muscle cells  Responsible for the heart’s ability to contract Endocardium  Simple squamous epithelium over a layer of connective tissue  Allows blood to move easily through the heart  Covers the surfaces of the heart valves PERICARDIUM  Double-layered, closed sac that surrounds the heart and anchor it within the mediastinum  2 layers: Fibrous and serous  Fibrous – tough; fibrous connective tissue outer layer; fuses with other coats of the great blood vessels passing through it- namely, aorta, pulmonary trunk, superior and inferior vena cava, pulmonary veins  Serous – inner layer of flat epithelial cells, with a thin layer of connective tissue o Parietal pericardium – outer layer of the serous membrane, lines the fibrous coat o Visceral pericardium – inner layer of the serous membrane, at the walls of the heart  Pericardial activity – located betwee the visceral and HEART VALVES parietal pericardia, is filled with a thin layer of pericardial  Atrioventricular valves - to prevent backflow of blood fluid; produced by the serous pericardium, the pericardial  Tricuspid valve – AV valve between the right atrium and fluid helps reduce friction as the heart moves within the right ventricle has 3 cusps pericardium  Bicuspid valve (mitral valve) – AV valve between left atrium and left ventricle has 2 cusps  Pulmonary valve - located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.  Aortic valve - located between the left ventricle and the aorta. MARUHOM 16  TRANS: Module 1 SEPTA  Structures that separate the chambers  Interatrial septum – separates the right and left atrium  Interventricular septum – separates the right and left ventricles LYMPHATIC SYSTEM CHAMBERS OF THE HEART  A group of organs, vessels and tissues that protect you from infection and keep a healthy balance of fluids throughout  Right atrium – receives venous CO2 blood from: your body. o Superior vena cava – venous blood from head, neck,  Originates in the tissue spaces of the body serving as an and upper portion of shoulders; opens into the upper accessory system for the flow of fluid from the tissue spaces part of the right atrium, it has no valve. It returns the into the circulation blood to the heart from the upper half of the body  Maintains fluid balance in tissues, absorps lipids from small o Inferior vena cava – venous blood from the rest of the intestine, and defends against microorganisms and foreign body; opens into the lower part of the atrium; it is substances guarded by a rudimentary, non-functioning valve. It returns the blood to the heart from lower half of the LYMPH body o Coronary sinus – drains most of the blood from the  clear to white fluid made of white blood cells, especially heart wall lymphocytes, the cells that attack bacteria in the blood  Right ventricle – blood flows from RV into the pulmonary  collection of the extra fluid that drains from cells and tissues trunk (that is not reabsrobed into the capillaries)  Left atrium – receives blood from lungs; quadrilateral in  fluid that flows throughout the lymphatic system shape and its anterior shows the openings of the four pulmonary veins from the lungs LYMPHATIC VESSELS  Left ventricle – blood flows from LV into the aorta; wall of  carry lymph away from tissues left ventricle is much thicker than right ventricle; allows for  the thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel stronger contractions to pump blood through systemic  it has valves that ensure a one-way flow of lymph circulation  contraction of lymphatic vessel smooth muscle, contraction of skeletal muscle, and thoracic pressure changes move BLOOD VESSELS the lymph  Arteries – carry blood away from the heart. Classified as: o Elastic arteries – thin-walled with large diameters o Muscular arteries – thick-walled with small diameters o Arterioles – smalles arteries  Capillaries – thinnest of all blood vessels; blood flows from arterioles into capillaries, can do the function of filtration and absorption. Classified as: o Continuous – walls of continuous capillaries have no gaps between the endothelial cells o Fenestrated – have pores called fenestrae that extend completely through the cell o Sinusoidal – large diameter capillaries with large fenestrae  Veins – from capillaries, blood flows into veins, vessels that carry blood toward the heart  Venules – composed of endothelium surrounded by a few smooth muscle cells  Small veins – venules covered with a layer of smooth muscle  Medium or large veins – contains less smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers than arteries of same size MARUHOM 17  TRANS: Module 1 LYMPH NODES THYMUS  small, round or bean-shaped structures ranging from 1mm  site for maturation of T cells to 25mm long  bilobed gland located in the superior mediastinum, the  Lymphatic tissue in the lymph node is organized into the partition dividing the thoracic cavity into the left and right cortex and the medulla. Lymphatic sinuses extend through parts the lymphatic tissue  increases in size until the first year of life, after which it  Substances in lymph are removed by phagocytosis, or they remains approximately the same size until 60yrs of age, stimulate lymphocytes (or both) when it decreases in size  Lymphocytes leave the lymph nodes and circulate to other tissues MAIN LYMPHATIC BASINS  Contains immune cell to attack foreign substances  Cervical lymph nodes - these nodes located in the neck  An important function of lymph nodes is to filter the lymph, and are responsible for draining lymph from the head and removing bacteria and other materials. In addition, neck regions lymphocytes congregate and proliferate with lymph nodes  Axillary lymph nodes - found in the armpits these nodes as well as carry out their protective functions. drain lymph from the upper limbs,chest and breast  Inguinal lymph nodes - located in the groin area these nodes collect lymph from the lower limbs and genital region RESPIRATORY SYSTEM UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM  Nose - The only external visible part of the respiratory system.  Nasal Cavity - located inside the nose. It is lined with mucous membrane that keeps our nose moist by making mucus  Pharynx - “throat”. It is part of both respiratory and digestive system. It serves a common passageway of food and air.  Larynx - “ voicebox”. It is a hollow tube that lets the air pass through the throat to the trachea.It also contains vocal cords and is essential to human speech. SPLEEN LOWER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM  Largest lymphatic organ located on your left side under your  Trachea -”wind pipe”. It is a long U-shaped tube that ribs and above your stomach connects the larynx to your lungs.  Graveyard of worn-out RBCs (loses its flexibility, gets in  Bronchi - are the passageways that connects your easily into the spleen and trap in there) windpipe to the lungs. It contains two main bronchi in your  foreign substances and defective red blood cells are right and left lung that divide and branch off into smaller removed from the blood by phagocytes in the red pulp of segments. the spleen (splenic cords and venous sinuses)  Lungs - major organ of the respiratory system which  limited reservoir for blood consist of the right and the left lung. The right lung is slightly  White pulp – lymphatic tissue surrounding the arteries larger that the left lung because the right lung has three within the spleen lobes while the left lung has 2 two lobes.  Red pulp – associated with the veins within the spleen  Alveoli - are tiny sacs that function as basic respiratory units. It is where the exchange of gases takes place. MARUHOM 18  TRANS: Module 1 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM  Kidneys – bean shaped organs about the size of a tightly  Oral Cavity clenched fist. Each kidney measures about 11cm long, 5cm  Throat (Pharynx) wide, and 3cm thick and weighs about 130g. These organs  Esophagus work constantly. They filter your blood and make pee, which  Small intestine your body then eliminates. You have two kidneys, one on  Large intestine either side of the back of your abdomen, just below your rib cage. Your kidneys work hard — they filter about 120 to 150 quarts (113.6 to 141.95 liters) of blood per day, which ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM produces about 1 to 2 quarts (0.95 to 1.95 liters) of pee Alimentary canal – tube extending from mouth to anus each day.  Mouth  Ureter – carry urine from kidneys to bladder  Pharynx  Urinary bladder – triangle shaped, hollow organ in the  Esophagus lower abdomen which stores urine, allowing urination to be  Stomach infrequent and controlled. Your bladder expands as it fills  Small intestine up. Most bladders can hold up to 2 cups (500 milliliters) of  Large intestine pee at a time.  Rectum and anal canal  Urethra - The urethra is the vessel responsible for transporting urine from the bladder to an external opening in the perineum. The male urethra is approximately 15- 20cm long. In addition to urine, the male urethra transports semen – a fluid containing spermatozoa and sex gland secretions. In females, the urethra is relatively short (approximately 4cm). It begins at the neck of the bladder, and passes inferiorly through the perineal membrane and muscular pelvic floor. The urethra opens directly onto the perineum, in an area between the labia minora, known as the vestibule. ACCESSORY ORGANS  Teeth  Tongue REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM  Pancreas MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS  Liver & biliary duct  Testicle - is the male reproductive gland or gonad in all  Gall bladder bilaterians, including humans.  Salivary glands  Epididymis - is a long, coiled tube that rests on the back of each testicle. It carries and stores the sperm cells that your testicles create.  Prostate - is both an accessory gland of the male reproductive system and a muscle-driven mechanical switch between urination and ejaculation.  Ejaculatory duct - these ducts empty semen into the urethra.  Seminal vesicle - are a pair of two convoluted tubular glands that lie behind the urinary bladder of some male mammals. They secrete fluid that partly composes the semen.  Vas deferens - transport sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in anticipation of ejaculation.  Penis - is an external male intromittent organ that additionally serves as the urinary duct.  Urethra - a tube that extends from the bladder to the URINARY SYSTEM external opening at the end of the penis. The urethra carries  The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, the both urine and sperm. urinary bladder and the urethra  Scrotum - a loose bag of skin that hangs outside the body,  Main function is to eliminate waste, regulate blood volume, behind the penis. It holds the testes in place. ion concentration, and pH, and is involved with red blood cell and vitamin D production MARUHOM 19  TRANS: Module 1 ANATOMICAL POSITION  Anatomical position, or standard anatomical position, refers to the positioning of the body when it is standing upright and facing forward with each arm hanging on either side of the body, and the palms facing forward. The legs are parallel, with feet flat on the floor and facing forward. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS  Fallopian tube - are paired tubes in the human female that stretch from the uterus to the ovaries. It is where sperm can fertilize an egg after traveling through the cervix and uterus.  Ovaries - is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum.  Uterus - or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus.  Cervix - the lower part of the uterus, which connects to the vagina, is known as the cervix. Often called the neck or entrance to the womb, the cervix lets menstrual blood out and semen into the uterus.  Vagina - has both internal and external parts and connects the uterus to the outside of the body.  Mons pubis - The fatty mound of tissue that covers the pubic bone. Often called the "mons." IMPORTANCE  Clitoris - is a sensitive organ located above the vaginal  To come up with a standardized direction in relating a body opening. The clitoris does not directly affect reproduction, part precisely to another. but it is an important part of the female sexual anatomy;  It is used to provide a clear and consistent mechanism of many women need clitoral stimulation to orgasm. describing the location of structures.  Labia majora - translated as “large lips,” this flap of skin protects the vagina from foreign particles. COMMON PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES  Labia minora - the “small lips” also surround and protect the vaginal opening and are located inside the labia majora.  Hymen - is a thin piece of mucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the external vaginal opening. MARUHOM 20  TRANS: Module 1  Gastric - stomach  Gluteal – buttocks or gluteal muscles  Hepatic - liver  Iliac – hip; located near ilium  Inguinal - groin  Lumbar - area of back between ribs and hips  Mammary – pertaining to breast  Nasal – pertaining to nose and nose cavity  Occipital – pertaining to the back of head  Orbital – pertaining to the eye area  Parietal - pertaining to outer wall of cavity or organ; parietal bone of skull or parietal lobe of cerebrum  Patellar – pertaining to patella; knee  Pectoral - pertaining to the thorax/ chest  Pedal – pertaining to foot  Perineal - pertaining to the perineum  Plantar – pertaining to sole of the foot  Popliteal – pertaining to back or posterior knee area  Pulmonary - pertaining to lungs/ respiratory system  Renal - pertaining to the kidney  Sacral – pertaining to sacrum; between hips  Scapular – pertaining to scapula; shoulder blader region  Sternal - breastbone area; sternum area  Temporal – pertaining to temporal bone of skull; side of the head  Umbilical – pertaining to umbilicus or umbilical cord; navel  Volar (palmar) – pertaining to the palm of the hand/ sole of the foot AREAS & QUADRANTS OF ABDOMEN COMMON DESCRIPTIVE TERMS  Antebrachial – pertaining to distal part of upper limb (forearm)  Antecubital – pertaining to the anterior surface of elbow, common site for sampling and transfusion of blood.  Axillary – pertaining to the region that lies beneath the glenohumeral joint, at the junction of the upper limb and thorax; armpit  Brachial – pertaining to proximal part of upper limb above the elbow; arm  Buccal (oral) – pertaining to an oral cavity, particulary the cheek  Cardiac – pertaining to the heart  Cervical – pertaining to the neck region  Cranial – pertaining to the skull or cranium  Cutaneous – pertaining to the skin  Health professionals use the quadrants and regions as  Deltoid – pertaining to the shoulder; deltoid muscle reference points for locating underlying organs  Femoral – pertaining to the thigh  Frontal – pertaining to the frontal bone; forehead MARUHOM 21  TRANS: Module 1 COMMON TERMS TERMS OF LOCATION, POSITION, DIRECTION  Superior - towards the top of the head  Inferior - towards the feet  Anterior/Ventral - in front  Posterior/Dorsal - in behind  Medial - towards the midline of the body  Lateral - away from the midline of the body  Internal - away from the surface, deep  External - towards the surface, superficial  Proximal - closer/towards the trunk  Distal - away/farthest away from the trunk  Superficial - nearer to the surface  Deep - farther from the surface  Peripheral - away from the center  Central - towards the center  Cortex - outer layer that lies on top of your cerebrum  Medulla - bottom-most part of the brain  Visceral - relating to organs within body cavities  Ipsilateral - on the same side of the body  Contralateral - on opposite side of the body BODY PLANES  Sagittal plane - separates the left and right sides of the body  Midsagittal plane - is a sagittal plane that perfectly divides the body down the midline.  Parasagittal plane - is any sagittal plane that does not run perfectly down the midline of the body.  Oblique plane - is a plane that can literally be any type of angle other than a horizontal or vertical angle.  Frontal plane - divides the body into the front (anterior) and TERMS OF MOVEMENT  back (posterior) sections.  Flexion - Decreasing the angle between two structures  Transverse plane - divides the body into upper (superior)  Extension - Increasing the angle between two structures  and lower (inferior) halves.  Abduction - Moving away from the midline  Adduction - Moving towards the midline  Rotation - Twisting motion towards or away from the midline (left or right)  Circumduction - Combined movement starting with flexion, then abduction, extension, and ending with adduction  Lateral flexion - flexion of the upper vertebra, side bending  Plantar flexion - Flexion of the plantar (underside) part of the foot  Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot towards the shin, such as walking on the heels  Pronation – when the palm faces downward  Supination – when the palm faces up MARUHOM 22  TRANS: Module 1 BODY CAVITIES  Dorsal Cavity - located posterior/ at the back of the body. Houses the contents of the central nervous system. Subdivided into 2 parts: o Cranial Cavity – located in superior dorsal cavity; enclosed by the cranium/skull; houses the brain o Abdominopelvic Cavity – inferior portion of ventral cavity, located below diaphragm  Abdominal cavity - located in the middle ventral cavity; enclosed by rib cage, muscles, vertebral column, diaphragm; houses the liver, stomach, pancreas, intestines  Pelvic cavity – located in the inferior ventral cavity; enclosed by the pelvis, pelvic floor muscles; houses the bladder, reproductive o Spinal Cavity – located inferior dorsal cavity; enclosed organs, pelvic, portion of colon, rectum by the vertebral column; houses the spinal cord  Ventral Cavity- located anterior/in front of the body. o Thoracic Cavity – cavity located in the chest; located in the superior ventral cavity; enclosed by ribcage, vertebral column, sternum; houses the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, great vessels, thymus gland LEARNING ISSUES  Pleural cavity  How many bones in the human body? 206 bones  Pericardial cavity  Closure of posterior and anterior fonanelle? Posterior: within 2 months, Anterior: 4-24 months  Convexity and Concavity of vertebral column? Concave: Cervical & Lumbar (Secondary/Lordotic curve), Convex: Thoracic & Sacrococcygeal (Primary/Kyphotic curve)  Importance of keratin? Keratin has two main functions: to adhere cells to each other and to form a protective layer on the outside of the skin. It also helps form hair, nails and your skin's outer layer (epidermis) MARUHOM 23  TRANS: Module 1  Components of sebum that makes it antibacterial? Linoleic acid? (not sure)  Joints in the shoulder? sternoclavicular (SC), acromioclavicular (AC), and scapulothoracic joints, and glenohumeral joint.  Short bone is composed of? Mostly spongy bone  Flat bone is composed of? Spongy bone sandwiched between compact bone  Why is it called floating bone? The hyoid bone is the only bone in humans that does not articulate with any other bone, but only has muscular, ligamentous, and cartilaginous attachments.  Layers of skin (exact sequence)  Joints degree of motion? Passive range of motion (PROM) is the ROM that is achieved when an outside force (such as a therapist or a CPM machine) exclusively causes movement of a joint and is usually the maximum range of motion that a joint can move. Usually performed when the patient is unable or not permitted to move the body part. Active-assisted range of motion (AAROM) is when the joint receives partial assistance from an outside force. Usually performed when the patient needs assistance with movement from an external force because of weakness, pain, or changes in muscle tone. Active range of motion (AROM) is the ROM that can be achieved when opposing muscles contract and relax, resulting in joint movement. For example, the active range of motion to allow the elbow to bend requires the biceps to contract while the triceps muscle relaxes. Active range of motion is usually less than passive range of motion. Usually performed by the patient independently and when the patient is able to voluntarily contract, control, and coordinate a movement.  High & low pressure in blood vessels? High: artery, low:capillary  Types of salivary glands? parotid glands produce a serous, watery secretion; submandibular glands produce a mixed serous and mucous secretion; sublingual glands secrete a saliva that is predominantly mucous in character  Position of kidney? The position of the right kidney is slightly lower than the left kidney due to the presence of the liver on the right side placed anterior to the kidney. To accommodate the liver the position of the right kidney Is slightly lower than the left kidney.  Skin layers and cells? Langerhans cells:Spinosum, Merkel cells:basale  True & false ribs? The upper seven pairs of ribs are known as true ribs because their costal cartilages articulate anteriorly directly with the sternum. The lower five pairs of ribs (ribs eight to twelve) are known as false ribs because their costal cartilages do not articulate directly with the sternum. Ribs 11-12 are floating ribs since they have no articulation with other ribs or with the sternum  Lumbar tap? Between L3 and L4  Spinal nerves, spinal bones MARUHOM 24