Language-and-Media-Module-2.pdf

LANGUAGE AND MEDIA MODULE 2 Language and Media Lesson 5- Media, Genre and Style Lesson 6 - News Stories and Media Media Talk and Media Genres Lesson 7 - Media Storytelling Narratives in the Media Lesson 8 - Media...

LANGUAGE AND MEDIA MODULE 2 Language and Media Lesson 5- Media, Genre and Style Lesson 6 - News Stories and Media Media Talk and Media Genres Lesson 7 - Media Storytelling Narratives in the Media Lesson 8 - Media Story and Shaping of Reality 1  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA INTRODUCTION In this unit, the concept of genre is helpful in identifying conventionalized media formats and patterns of language use within them, and the concept of style can reveal the ways language use sets the general tone of texts and indexes social identities and practices are introduced. Some common frameworks to help us analyze media genres and styles are also discussed, followed by the frameworks to exploring generic structures and stylistic features of prominent media genres, including the news story and the media interview and the hybrid genre of the advertorial. This unit pointed out that narratives in the media are not always discrete, well-structured units, but rather complex interactional events. It also emphasized that narratives are both personal and social, in that they always involve the reproduction of cultural and social norms. It further explored the diverse practices of storytelling in the media. It finally then discussed narrative as a tool for social interaction in a range of contexts. OBJECTIVES At the end of this module, students are expected to: 1. recognize the difference between genre and style 2. be familiar with the characteristics and types of news stories and interviews 3. discuss how storytelling is done in media 4. analyze how media storytelling affects the audience 2  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Lesson 5- Media, Genre and Style Genre Generally, genre means a kind or type of text. The notion was initially developed in literary studies to classify literary works into types based on features such as characters, settings, length, and how language is used. It was used, for example, to show how romance novels, fairy tales, and biographies differ from one another. Non-literary texts, including media texts, can also be grouped into distinctive genres. The two linguists that have made the greatest contribution to our understanding of non-literary genres are John Swales and Vijay Bhatia, who founded a school of discourse analysis called genre analysis. Genres are understood to be easily recognizable forms of discourse with particular purposes for particular audiences which share certain elements of structure and content. Types of Genre Codes and Conventions Iconographies The specific types of media language choices that make a genre recognizable. These iconographies can be visual or aural. For example, many science fiction products use the mise-en-scene of outer space, space ships, alien planets etc. These are iconographies that we recognize as belonging to the sci-fi genre. Representations The specific types of representations that we associate with a genre. The hero of a crime drama is likely to be a detective and may be a lone wolf who has a dark personality caused by personal problems. The hero of a romantic comedy is likely to be a lighter character who is well meaning but may be clumsy or unlucky or a little foolish. These representations are conventions within these genres. Themes Different genres will deal with different themes. Science fiction often deals with ideas about exploration, living in enclosed communities or technological developments. Crime dramas deal with the consequences of violence, the search for the truth and maintaining law and order whilst romantic comedies deal with love, romance and dating. 3  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA **Hybrid A good example of a hybrid genre is the mockumentary , which combines the genres of the documentary with other broadcast genres, including reality TV and situation comedy ( sitcom for short). A documentary is expected to capture elements of reality and provide a factual report of events or topics that are deemed important. To achieve the sense of realism and factuality, particular narrative and filming techniques are employed, including the use of formal language, interviews with witnesses and experts, shooting on location (as opposed to in a studio), the use of portable cameras and close-ups to capture real reactions and emotions, and the inclusion of a voice-over , which allows the filmmaker to offer additional information or explanation. In the 1990s, with shows such as Big Brother , a new form of documentary known as a ‘reality TV’ became popular. Genres of the Media 1. Print media are differentiated according to a number of characteristics: whether they are non-periodical or periodical, by content and subject matter, by format, by type of presentation, by purpose or function, and by readership. Books Books can be classified according to various principles that can overlap: according to content and type of presentation (fiction, non-fiction etc.), readership (children's, youth books), form or format (paperback, hardcover, picture book etc.), and even the intended purpose (lexicon, encyclopedia, cook book, travel guide etc.). Small prints Pamphlets The pamphlet must be distinguished as a separate genre from the handbill and the broadsheet because of its outer form, its content and its function, though the boundaries and transitions between them are at times blurred. Pamphlets characteristically comprise more than one page thus allowing space for longer expositions. Therefore, they were not only used for mere information purposes but also for influencing opinions and convictions. They even served as means of propaganda. Newspapers Newspapers in the modern meaning of the word only fully developed when current and thematically universal news was continuously printed in regular intervals. Periodicity is also essential. 4  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Journals The journal became a communication medium for the increasingly specialized individual sciences and social fields of interest. However, many journals intended to serve as entertainment and for passing time (general magazines). As the result of new inventions and societal trends, new journals and magazines continuously appeared, for example, in the 20th century film, motor, sports journals etc. Intelligencers (advertisement sheets) The function of intelligencers for publishing no longer remained limited to advertisement. Official notifications, local reporting in a manner of speaking, advisement and also entertainment material were added. 2. Electronic media is anything that is used to advertise or promote that is run by electricity. Three major genres that fall into this category. Television Television in the past, there were a few channels sharing various types of content, whereas now we have hundreds of TV channels to choose from. Each channel delivers a different type of content, so you have a separate channel for news, drama, movies, sports, animation, nature, travel, politics, cartoon, and religion. It’s the number one broadcasting media due to its reach to the audience. Radio Radio uses radio waves to transmit entertaining, informative, and educative content to the public. Due to its high reach to the audience, radio is widely used for advertising products and services. Radio is one of the oldest means of entertainment, and today people often hear it to find out the weather and traffic while commuting. Movies Film, motion picture, screenplay, moving picture, or movie has world-wide reachability. It’s the best type of mass media to promote cultures and spread social awareness. Movies have always played a huge part in the entertainment world. 5  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA 3. New Age Media New Media are digital, interactive, hypertextual, networked, virtual and simulated. Characteristics of New age media Digital Digitalization what allows so much information to be stored in compact hard disks or micro memory cards and it is also what allows for the near instantaneous transmission of information via cable and satellite. Interactivity New Media however is a two way affair and it allows consumers and users to get more involved. It is much more of a two way form of communication than old media. Hypertextual Hypertext, or ‘links’ are a common feature of new media, which allows users more freedom of choice over how they navigate the different sources of information available to them. 6  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Global Networks Digital Media has also facilitated cultural globalization – we now interact much more globally and via virtual networks of people rather than locally. These networks allow for ‘collective intelligence’ to increase – they allow us to pool our resources much more easily and to draw on a wider range of talents and sources of information (depending on our needs) than ever before. Virtual Worlds New Media presents to us a very different reality from face to face to ‘lived reality’ – for most of us this means a very fast paced flow of information with numerous products and people screaming for our attention. Simulation Simulation goes a step beyond the ‘virtual’ nature of New Media as usual. Simulation is most obviously experienced computer games which provide an immersive experience for users into a “virtual life” that is simulated through digital technology. Social networks Social networks or websites including Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, Tumblr, LinkedIn, Snapchat, Quora, Reddit, Pinterest, etc. They are user- friendly and widely used by people around the world. Although we can find any news here, they may be misleading because of the lack of regulations on the content shared. Online forums An online place where we can comment, message, or discuss a particular topic. Forums allow us to share knowledge with other people with the same interest. That’s why it’s regarded as the best platform to seek support and assistance. Podcast Podcast is a series of audios focused on a particular topic or theme. We can listen to them on a computer or a mobile phone. It’s a platform that allows anyone to share their knowledge and communicate with the world. Style Style commonly refers to a manner of doing something (Coupland, 2007). When we think of style, we normally think of distinctive designs (Baroque style in architecture), or compositions (hip-hop style in music), or appearances (the unique way you or your friends might dress or apply makeup). 7  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Each of these styles is composed of elements which have distinctive features in terms of textures, shapes, color, patterns, and sounds that combine to create that style. Style can also refer to a particular way of speaking, and this is what style means in sociolinguistics. The notion of style as a way of speaking entails all aspects of language use, including vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and articulation, as well as paralinguistic aspects of communication such as gesture and timing. For example, when someone is said to speak in a ‘rude’ manner, we would normally associate this style with swear words, possibly verbs in the imperative mood, and a loud voice (though it is important to note that the understanding of what is perceived as ‘rude’ or impolite is not universal and varies across settings, contexts, and cultures). Early notions of style were quite formalized and mostly concerned with a single dimension: mostly formal vs. informal or standard vs. non-standard (vernacular) language use (Labov, 1972). More recent conceptualizations of style in sociolinguistics conceive of style in terms of a repertoire of different linguistic and non-linguistic resources that speakers utilize to project a particular social identity or convey particular social meanings (Coupland, 2007; Eckert, 2001). The way people choose and use these resources depends on the context they find themselves in, who they think they are talking to (their audience), and the Appropriateness of Style Design elements other than language play an important role in signaling style. Design elements that contribute to style include font (for example, Gothic vs. Courier), photo tinting (for example, sepia to indicate a historical or retro effect), and overall layout. Design elements work together. They also work in conjunction with features of accompanying language to create an overall discourse style. When stylistic effects of different kinds function together, they build up not only a sense of overall general style, but also, if linked to a clear idea of purpose, they create particular kinds of expectations in different audiences. A good example of the relevance of design elements in creating a particular style is the front page of a newspaper. Styles and social identities Style as a semiotic repertoire can signal belonging to a particular group or community, which, in turn, might be associated with a particular lifestyle or particular social practices (Auer, 2007). People speak in a particular way because they want to be identified with a particular social group or to be recognized as a member of that group. The linguist Robert Le Page described such stylistic choices as ‘acts of identity’ (Le Page & Tabouret-Keller, 1985). From this it should be clear that identity is not necessarily something that we 8  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA possess, but something that we ‘do’ using language and other semiotic resources. The kind of language or style that we use and therefore the kind of identity that we project depend on the social occasion in which we find ourselves. We make stylistic choices and mobilize different kinds of language and other resources as we move from one social context to another. For example, when you have a meeting with a professor to discuss your assignment, you are more likely to use more formal, standard, and impersonal language, and when you meet with a group of friends, you probably switch to a more informal, interpersonal style and deploy other linguistic resources, including slang words, humor, and banter. Discussion: In your own words, give at least three differences between Genre and Style in Media. Discuss and justify your answer based on the notes provided. Criteria: Clarity of Content- 5 points Justification and discussion- 5 points Lesson 6 - News Stories and Media News stories The media scholar Alan Bell once said that ‘Journalists do not write articles. They write stories’ (Bell, 1991: 147). As with the everyday storytelling practices of ordinary people, journalists write stories not just to inform us about something, but also to shock, amaze, inspire, educate, persuade, or amuse us. News stories are a good case in point. Although they are generally seen as ‘representations’ of news events, different newspapers often tell the same story in different ways, creating different narrative versions of an event. Linguistic features of New Stories 1. Transitivity, that is, the resources the language gives us to introduce different participants and link them together with different kinds of processes. The choices we make about participants and processes define who gets included in our version of a story and who gets left out as well as who is depicted as the active participant (doing things) and who is depicted as the passive one (having things done to or for them). Transitivity makes a distinction between two participant roles: the agent and the 9  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA patient. The agent is normally a person or entity that performs the action expressed by the verb. In English, the agent is usually placed in the subject position. The patient, however, is a person or entity at the receiving end of the action and occurs in the object position. In the sentence John beat Tom, John is the agent who performs the action of beating, whereas Tom assumes the role of the patient (in this case, probably literally). Traditional grammar describes this kind of sentence as an active sentence. Yet, events are not always retold in active sentences with clear participant roles. Sometimes, news writers revert to passive sentences, which in some cases may put more emphasis on the agent by putting it at the end of the sentence where new information is usually placed. In other cases, a passive sentence may put more emphasis on the patient (in the subject position), especially when the agent is left out through so-called agentless passivation as in Tom was beaten, ‘hiding’ the performer of the action. 2. Nominalization is another linguistic device which can give a news story an ideological slant. Essentially, nominalization is a kind of textual condensation; it involves a transformation of a process into a noun or a noun phrase so that the process becomes a ‘thing’. For example, the clause a Teenager died of stab wounds can be nominalized to the Teenager’s death by stab wounds. As Michael Toolan points out, nominalization de-narrativizes processes hiding details that, for example, caused actions. It can deflect readers’ attention from the action itself and from asking critical questions such as who killed the teenager and under what circumstances? 3. Evaluation refers to the gamut of lexical and grammatical choices that we can use to express an opinion about things, people, and events, whether they are good or bad, important, or unimportant, etc. (Bednarek, 2006). Evaluation is a key characteristic of human behavior and an important tool for interpreting the world around us. When media producers produce a news story, they employ a range of evaluative choices to tell the story in the way that they want it to be understood. Adjectives, verbs, nouns, and noun phrases can all be used to describe and evaluate people, actions, and events. Specifically, descriptions of people through various naming practices can carry explicit and implicit (often ideologically colored) meanings. News story objective While the structure of news stories has changed over time, the overall purpose remains the same. News writing informs and entertains readers and listeners. News stories give citizens information about events happening both in their communities and around the world and therefore play an essential role in shaping their viewpoints and general ideas. We can know what is happening in a foreign country without traveling there or develop an opinion about a public figure without meeting the person. Strategic communication writers produce material that they hope will find its way into the news stream. They provide information that helps explain their clients’ facts, 10  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA framing of a controversy, or opinions. Producing the material in a format that makes it easier for journalists to adapt to their own purposes is very important. News Story Writing Style Inverted pyramid style In general, news stories are organized using the inverted pyramid style, in which information is presented in descending order of importance. This allows the audience to read the most crucial details quickly so they can decide whether to continue or stop reading the story. From an editing perspective, using the inverted pyramid style makes it easier to cut a story from the bottom, if necessary (Scanlan, 2003). It is important to note that some news stories do not strictly follow the inverted pyramid style, although the lead for a hard news piece always does. Furthermore, not everyone in the journalism field embraces the style; some detractors believe it is an unnatural way to engage in storytelling and present news to the public. Yet, proponents believe it is an efficient way to organize and share information in a fast-paced society (Scanlan, 2003). Types of News Stories Straight news/Hard news Stories that report only the most essential information in a concise and impartial manner are referred to as straight or hard news stories. This type of story typically follows the inverted pyramid style, which organizes information by descending order of importance or places the most newsworthy information at the beginning of the article. Examples of hard news stories include those about political topics and crime. Features The primary difference between a feature story and a straight news story is the style. A feature article is more in-depth than a traditional hard news article and uses the types of storytelling devices and details that you might find in novels. Feature stories are considered soft news and do not focus merely on the basic facts. Writers typically have more flexibility to use a wider range of formats, provide rich descriptions, and include scene-setting anecdotes. Features often are given more space on the page and are accompanied by pictures, illustrations, graphics, maps, and other visual 11  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA components. A profile of an athlete or a political figure is an example of a feature article. Editorial Although journalistic ethical standards call for general news writing to be objective in content and tone, news writers also have the opportunity to communicate personal points of view about current events and topics. The editorial is a type of news story used to develop an argument about an issue and even sway readers’ opinions. The essay also represents the official view of an editorial board that determines what views to share after some kind of deliberative process. Media Talk and Media Genres Characteristic of Media Interviews 1. Interviewers and interviewees know that what they say will be appraised not just by their immediate interlocutor but by who-knows-how-many beyond. This is not merely a matter of pressure towards increased circumspection in one’s choice of words, though that must undoubtedly exist. It is also a matter of the public performance of talk—of talking adequately for the public purposes of the encounter and of acquitting oneself well in public. 2. As a genre, they are characterized by clear differentiation or pre-allocation of roles: one speaker asks questions and the other answers them. The speaker who asks questions does so from an institutionally defined position, one in which they hold some responsibility for setting the agenda, the terms, or the topic of the discourse. Nor is it a case of simply asking questions; the media interviewer also controls the length, shape, and even the style of the encounter. Types of Media Interview 1. Phone interview Phone interviews have traditionally been the most common format thanks to their focused convenience at either end of the line. Arguably, Zoom and other video conference platforms have muscled into this space over the past 18 months and perhaps they’re here to stay. The clear potential benefit of a video call is the opportunity to employ body language and facial expression to make your points in a more engaging way. The typical output from these interviews will be in written format, from a full write-up of the Q&A to the inclusion of a single quote within a much wider article. These interviews will often be recorded and transcribed for ease of editing. 12  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA 2. Broadcast interview This category covers any interview which is to be published in audio format, rather than transcribed and printed. This could be live on radio or TV, or recorded for subsequent broadcast, which now includes digital platforms such as podcasts. Either way, the stakes are slightly higher here, whereas other interview formats may offer a degree of leniency in the event if a slip up. Communication between the broadcasting team and the audience is very important, the way in which they engage with the content, and the types of a message that will work in this format. Sometimes, a message that works perfectly in written form may not work so well on the air waves without some careful repackaging. 3. In-person interview The interview may take place at your office, on the journalist’s home turf, over a coffee or lunch, or on the fringes of an industry gathering or conference. The location should have little impact on the preparation, and ideally the Press Relations team will have to travel during the interview. For example, an interview at an industry conference may touch upon some of the themes aired on stage, whereas an interview at the office is likely to give the opportunity for the journalist a quick pen portrait of the organization. 4. Written interview This type responds to interview questions in writing. In this case, the journalist will likely send a set of questions to the PR team. The team will then work to compose answers and send them back for publication. Approached in the right manner, the written interview gives a complete control to the interviewee. The PR team, alive to the increased risk of misunderstanding or comments being used out of context, will put in the legwork before and after the questions are answered. Four principal subgenres of Interview 1. interviews with correspondents (reporting and commenting); 2. interviews with ordinary people affected by or caught up in the news (witnessing, reacting, and expressing opinion); 3. interviews with experts (informing and explaining); 4. interviews with ‘principals’ – public figures with some kind of responsible role in relation to the news event (accounting). These four subgenres may be defined in part by characterizing the social identity and role of the person being interviewed. 13  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Narrative in social media The participatory nature of digital environments has led to new forms of narrative interactions, allowing users to become simultaneously authors and audiences of narratives. Users are not only able to choose what to tell and how to tell it, but they are also able to contribute to other people’s stories by providing comments and evaluations, or sharing their own stories in response. Social media sites are in fact huge repositories of diverse accounts of reflective, emotive, artistic, and playful stories (Page, 2018). In most cases, social media narratives are far from the kind of plot-dependent, past tense recounts told by one teller that Labov and Waletzky (1967) studied. Nonetheless, they provide important resources for people to share experiences, negotiate identities, and engage with others (Page, 2018). Approaches to Narratives by Elinor Ochs and Lisa Capps (2001) 1. Tellership A story maybe told by a single teller or multiple tellers. Tellership emphasizes the fact that narratives can be told not just by one teller, but also may involve many tellers. 2. Tellability It is the value of a story as highly worth telling or seemingly irrelevant. Tellability refers to the value of a story—what makes it ‘worth telling’. It is important to note that what counts as tellable is highly contingent and depends on the social context; a particular story might be worth telling in one context but completely irrelevant in another. 3. Embeddedness It is the extent to which a story can be detached from or embedded in its context. Embeddedness explores the level of contextualization and the extent to which a story can be detached from its original context. 4. Linearity It is the structural qualities of a story as closed, temporal sequence or open- ended and multilinear (references to time, places, and people) which takes into consideration the aspects of narrative beyond simply their structure. 5. Moral Stance It is the narrator’s attitude and evaluations of reported events, which may be certain or fluctuating moral stance refers to the perspective for interpreting moral and other evaluative meanings that a narrative takes. 14  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Discussion: In your opinion, and based on what you have read, what makes news stories interesting and credible? Criteria: Clarity of Content- 5 points Justification and discussion- 5 points Lesson 7 - Media Storytelling Narrative: from structure to interaction Storytelling is usually held to be a universal activity. The psychologist Jerome Bruner (1991) suggests that there is an ‘innate’ human propensity to organize events into memorable stories. It is not surprising, therefore, that stories pervade our day-to-day lives. Stories are central to a whole range of media genres, and equally, we use a whole range of media formats to tell and listen to stories. In particular, social media have opened up new possibilities to produce and share stories. Although they have not diametrically changed the kind of stories that we tell, they have enabled us to tell stories in different ways. The traditional way of looking at narrative is to see it as a text type or a genre with its own set of structural conventions and social purposes. Narrative genres include such things as anecdotes, fables, fairy tales, and love stories. Narrative Structure ❑ An Abstract (a summary of what the story is about). ❑ An Orientation (explaining the who, what, where, and what of the story). ❑ Complicating Action (details about what happened in the story to move the plot forward). ❑ Evaluation (explaining the significance and/or implications of the actions in the story). ❑ Result or Resolution (telling what finally happened at the end of the story). ❑ Coda (a short statement summarizing the story and bringing the reader/listener back into the present situation). 15  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Small Stories by Sociolinguists Michael Bamberg and Alexandra Georgakopoulou (2008) 1. Breaking News involves the telling of a very recent event 2. Projections is where participants share future or hypothetical events 3. Shared Stories consist of chains of multiple small stories collaboratively authored by participants sometimes turn by turn. Narrative and power Narratives are social as much as they are personal, and as social occasions, they play an important role in reproducing socio-cultural rules, norms, and practices. Narratives are therefore an interesting lens through which we can both explore accounts of personal experience as well as trace larger societal and cultural norms that shape that individual experience. Narratives in the modern world, often serve the same function as ‘myths’ in the ancient world, that is, stories in which we encode the way we understand ourselves and the societies in which we live (Barthes, 2009). This is particularly pertinent to media narratives, which work on two levels: a literal level, in which they tell stories of specific people and specific events, and a symbolic level, in which they preserve, promote, and naturalize particular ideological positions. Power in a narrative does not only work through the contents conveyed in the narrative. In order to tell a particular story, we need to possess the right kind of tools, for example, have a good grasp of a particular kind of language and other semiotic resources. These are acquired through access to specific sites, for example, educational institutions or professions, but access to these is not equally distributed in society. This role is reserved for those who have embarked on a particular educational and professional path and have elaborate resources to do so, including excellent writing skills, degrees, and substantial professional experience or outstanding journalistic achievements. So, to tell a story in a media context involves not only the ability to use language, it has to be a particular kind of language underpinned by specific educational and professional experience and credentials. Because of this, those who produce the kind of authoritative narratives that we encounter in the media such as news stories do not only have the right to tell stories and therefore construct narrative versions of events, but they also acquire the right to evaluate and judge the stories of others. Therefore, narratives not only grant the power of telling, they also legitimize claims to authority and control over what is told, when, where, and how it is told, and who participates in the telling. In this sense, narratives can be a powerful tool for the exercise of power, domination, and control in society 16  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA Narratives in the Media Semantics in Storytelling Storytelling is a technique to order a series of events in the world and find meaningful patterns in it. By telling a story we relate events into a schematic structure, for example, in terms of topic, locality or causal relationships, and construct explanatory models of the world and events. Semantic in storytelling can be seen as the attempt to translate the theories of storytelling into a formal, and machine-processable scheme. Storytellers dynamically adjust their narratives and tell their stories differently depending on who the listener is. The most simplistic goal of storytelling is the automatic (or semi-automatic) generation of stories, where a story is considered a natural language text containing a complete, correct and unambiguous story. The definition splits storytelling into semantic content generation and natural language generation. We rather see a storyline as a set of building blocks, which depending on their combination (temporal, geographical, semantic, causal) form a story, which allows us to provide a wider range and more flexibility for suggesting storylines. Narrative Techniques 1. Setting This technique is particularly popular in Gothic fiction, where a house or landscape are used almost as an additional character in the story, setting the mood and having a significant influence on the protagonist. 2. Foreshadowing As the name suggests, writers will use foreshadowing to suggest events or outcomes that will happen later in the writing, using either characters or objects within the story. 3. Cliffhanger A cliffhanger is when a story is left open-ended and unresolved. This is a commonly used narrative technique in television and film, as creators want the viewers to come back for the next episode or sequel to see if the answers are revealed. 4. Flashback or Flash Forward Taking the reader out of an otherwise chronological story, a flashback or flash forward will show events that happened in the past or future that impact the characters in the present day of the story timeline. 5. Red Herring Red herrings are popular in crime and mystery writing in particular, where writers divert the attention of the reader onto another character or element of the story in order to distract them from the truth. 17  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA 6. Epiphany A sudden realization by a character can have a dramatic impact on a story. This is usually in relation to a problem that a character has been facing and a solution or different perspective emerges. 7. First-Person Narrator When using this narrative perspective, a writer tells the story from the point of view of one character. In most cases this is the protagonist, but not always. 8. Backstory Backstory reflects on events that happen before the main body of the story being told, giving context for what happens in the present time. This is often featured as a prologue but can also be shared throughout a linear timeline using character reflections. 9. Author Surrogate Most writers will write elements of themselves into their characters, but an author surrogate is a more defined version of this. A character will take on the personal views, morals, and even personality traits of their author when using this narrative technique. 10. Repetitive Designation Repetition is common throughout works of fiction and is often used to further a particular point in the story. This technique makes use of repeated references to either a character or object. At first, this reference appears unimportant, but is later proven to be a crucial part of the narrative. 11. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy As the name suggests, a writer will use this technique to have characters make predictions about the future, which then come true as a result of them thinking about that event. 12. Unreliable Narrator To some extent, most first-person narrators can be seen as unreliable as they’re often a key character in the story and show an element of bias. An unreliable narrator will deliberately mislead a reader to add intrigue to the story. 13. Narrative Hook The best stories are the ones that grip you from the beginning, and that’s exactly what a narrative hook does. Usually found at the start of the narrative, they entice you to keep reading. 14. Allegory An allegory is a symbolic story, often religious or spiritual in nature, that reflects on elements of what it’s like to be human. 18  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA 15. Hyperbole This technique uses extreme exaggeration to create a lasting impression or create strong feelings in the reader. 16. Sensory Detail Without images to support the writing, the reader is left to their own imagination. Sensory detail and imagery is a commonly-used method to help readers create mental images of a scene, using descriptive language that touches specifically on the five senses. 17. Onomatopoeia Used throughout literature and nonfiction, an onomatopoeia is a word that sounds similar to the word that it’s describing. 18. Parody Parodies are typically used to mock or convey humor through exaggerated and over- the-top imitation. 19. Oxymoron They say opposites attract and that’s the case with oxymorons. These are two words that are deliberately used together to imply the opposite of each other. 20. Anthropomorphism or Personification Personification is commonly used to give human-like characteristics and traits to non- human elements. Anthropomorphism is a form of this, specifically referring to animals. 21. Pathetic Fallacy This is where the mood of a character is reflected in non-human objects surrounding them. Weather is typically used in fiction to suggest a character’s frame of mind in a given moment of the story. 22. Multiperspectivity A story can have both multiple narrators and perspectives. This technique is used to show different character’s viewpoints throughout the story, often in the form of an all-knowing, or omniscient, third-person narrator. 23. Metaphor We use metaphors throughout our daily lives, and it’s one of the most popular literary techniques. A writer will use descriptive language as a figure of speech to describe a scene or character, rather than being completely literal in their description. 19  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA 24. Story Within a Story or Frame Story A narrative can contain multiple stories or subplots and this technique is a good example of that. Writers using frame stories will often create “mini stories” within the main narrative to highlight other characters or develop the plot. 25. Plot Twist When something unexpected happens in a story, this is often described as a plot twist. Used throughout all manner of storytelling, the expected ending is usually shifted at a pivotal moment in the plot. Discussion: What makes storytelling in Media powerful? Criteria: Clarity of Content- 5 points Justification and discussion- 5 points Lesson 8 - Media Story and Shaping of Reality A Good Story A good story is about something the audience decides is interesting or important. A great story often does both by using storytelling to make important news interesting. The public is exceptionally diverse. Though people may share certain characteristics or beliefs, they have an untold variety of concerns and interests. So anything can be news. But not everything is newsworthy. Journalism is a process in which a reporter uses verification and storytelling to make a subject newsworthy. At its most basic level, news is a function of distribution -– news organizations (or members of the public) create stories to pass on a piece of information to readers, viewers, or listeners. A good story, however, does more than inform or amplify. It adds value to the topic. Creating a good story means finding and verifying important or interesting information and then presenting it in a way that engages the audience. Good stories are part of what make journalism different, and more valuable, than other content in the media universe. 20  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA What makes a good story… UNFREEZE TIME People are active, they are doing things – have your stories show that. Jack Hart, the former managing editor and writing coach at The Oregonian says 15-30 column inches is a reasonable length for a narrative that can be produced in a day. The idea is to follow a character through a complication and show how they resolve it. Think of a narrative arc: the complication is introduced, then the action unfolds, the character has a revelation, the character resolves the complication. DEVELOP CHARACTER Too much journalism fails to develop character. The people are cardboard, names and faces fit into a journalistic template: the investigating officer, the protester, the conservative Republican, the liberal Democrat. Often, just a little more reporting can provide the kinds of details that avoid stereotypes and provide an interesting dimension to the people who inhabit your stories. TELL THE AUDIENCE WHAT IT MEANS This is more than just decoding the latest zoning issues or the tuition increases. Tell your audience why the world works the way it does, why a certain trend is happening, why an event is or isn’t taking place. Don’t shy away from being an authenticator that provides clarity. PROVE RELEVANCY Readers view the news through the lens of their lives and filter the content based on their interests and concerns. Though journalists may think, in fact may know, that something is “news,” declaring it so doesn’t make it true to the news consumer. Relevancy should not be assumed. We need to prove it. For example, how do you make local connections to the Asian economic market? The Portland Oregonian did it by following an Oregon potato from harvest until it was sold as part of a large order of French fries in a McDonalds in Singapore. Data is also effective. As an isolated incident, a smash and grab from a parked car probably won’t rise to the level of “news,” except to neighbors on the same street. But if crime-against-property statistics reveal a rash of “larcenies from an auto,” the “incident” becomes representative of something that’s happening in many neighborhoods, and as such, is news. EXPERIMENT WITH STORYTELLING This is more than just dropping the journalist’s favorite crutch, the inverted pyramid and telling stories. This is about thinking of stories differently. Maybe a graphic or map is enough to tell the story. Maybe a photo will do the trick. Maybe the characters themselves can write, or speak, in their own words. 21  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA USE THE WEB Use the Web to enhance the power of storytelling and make the story more personal and interactive. Video and audio make the reader an eyewitness. Comments, forums, and other crowdsourcing feedback allow citizens to interact with the news. Maps help readers see where an event occurred and also their proximity to it. And a calculator allows users to translate big, abstract, numbers to his or her very personal situation. WORKSHEET Identify and discuss the impact of storytelling to the audience. Explain how a good story can influence the way the audience think. Justify your answers with the use of some concepts from the module. Criteria: Clarity of Content- 10 pts Justification and Discussion- 10 pts _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 22  LANGUAGE AND MEDIA References: Books: Bednarek, M. & Caple, H. (2018). News Discourse. Bloomsbury Academic. Bondi, M., Cacchiani, S. & Mazzi, D. (eds) (2016). Discourse In and Through the Media: Recontextualizing and Reconceptualizing Expert Discourse. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Burridge, K.& Stebbins, T.N. (2020) For the Love of Language : An Introduction to Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. Cotter, C. & Perrin, D. (2018). The Routledge Handbook of Language and Media. NY: Routledge. Dovchin, S. (2018). Language, Media and Globalization in the Periphery: The Linguascapes of Popular Music in Mongolia. New York: Routledge. Giles, H. St. Clair. R. N. (eds) (2019). Recent Advances in Language, Communication, and Social Psychology. New York: Routledge. Jones, R. H., Jaworska, S. & Aslan E. (2021). Language and Media: A Resource for Students. New York: Routledge. Johnson, S. Ensslin, A. (eds.) (2018). Language in the Media: Representations, Identities, Ideologies. Bloomsbury Academic. Montgomery, M. (2018). Language, Media and Culture: The Key Concepts. New York: Routledge. Navas, E., Gallagher, O., & burrough, x. (2021) The Routledge Handbook of Remix Studies and Digital Humanities. New York: Routledge. Online References: Bulger, M. & Davison, P. (2018). The Promises, Challenges and Futures of Media Literacy. The National Association for Media Literacy Education’s Journal of Media Literacy Education. Eristi, B., & Erdem, C. (2017). Development of a Media Literacy Skills Scale. Contemporary Educational Technology, 8(3), 249-267. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6199 Prepared by: Recommending Approval: Approved: MANILYN R. CACANINDIN LEILANI I. PAMO RAQUEL D. QUIAMBAO Instructor/Professor Program Chair Dean 23