Modern History PDF

Ancient History MODERN HISTORY ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS The Europeans that came to India were 1. Portugese 2. Dutch 3. Danes 4. French 1. Portugese: Bartholomew Diaz was the first navigator to cross the Equator. Vasco da Gama discovered the se...

Ancient History MODERN HISTORY ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS The Europeans that came to India were 1. Portugese 2. Dutch 3. Danes 4. French 1. Portugese: Bartholomew Diaz was the first navigator to cross the Equator. Vasco da Gama discovered the sea trade route to India and landed at Calicut on May 17, 1498. He was received by King Zamorin of Calicut (Manuvikrama Varma). In 1502 A.P., the Portuguese established their settlements at Cochin, Calicut and Cannanore. Cochin was the main centre for the Portuguese trade upto 1530 A.D. Vasco da Gama was buried at Cochin Governors: 2. Fransisco de Almada- He was the first Portuguese Governor and founder of Blue Water Policy. 2. Alphonso de Albuquerque was the second Portuguese Governor. He conquered Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 A.D. He founded the idea of ‘Portuguese empire in India and further encouraged conversions and forced marriages. 3. Nino de Cunha shifted the capital city from Cochin to Goa. St. Xavier, the popular Jesuit father visited India during the tenure of Alfanso de D’souza. Settlements: On the West Coast, the Portugese had settlements at – Ormuz, Dabool, Cambay, Surat, Goa, Daman and Diu, Salsette, Bassein, Kalyan. The East Coast settlements were-Santhome near Chennai and Hugli in Bengal. On the Malabar Coast Portugese settlements were – Cochin, Calicut and Cannanore. Trade: Their maximum trade was carried out in spices. They were the first to start licensing system and to follow monopolistic trade. The lincensers given by the Portuguese were called Cartazes. Downfall of the Portugese in India: In 1612 A.D., Captain Best of the English defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Swalley and they lost Surat to the English. In 1622 A.D., Ormuz was lost to the Dutch. In 1631 A.D., Hugli was lost. In 1661 A.D., Mumbai was given away as dowry to Prince Charles II of Enginad who married the Portuguese Princess Catherine of Briganza. In 1663 A.D., Cochin was lost to the Dutch. www.laex.in -1- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History In 1739 A.D., Peshwa Bajirao I occupied the Salsette and Bassein islands. They were only left with Goa, Daman and Diu upto 1961 A.D. 2. DUTCH: Dutch East India Company was founded in 1603 A.D. Their first settlement in India was Machilipatnam (captured in 1605 A.D.). Upto 1689 A.D., Pulicat was the main centre of Dutch trade. Onwards Nagapatnam became the main centre of Dutch trade in India. Their other settlements were Bhimunipatnam (near Vishkhapatnam) which was the first Municipal Corporation in India. In Bengal, Cassimbazar, Chinsurah, Hugli, Dacca and Patna (in Bihar) were their other settlements. On the West Coast- Ormuz, Cambay, Surat, Broach and in North, Agra was their settlement. On the Malabar Coast, Cochin was of prime importance. I The Dutch traded maximum in textile and indigo. The best indigo was produced in Bayana, Sarkaz in Gujarat and in Agra. The Dutch carried out trade called Intra-Asian and Euro-Asian (India to Indonesia and Indonesia to Europe) trade. Batavia in Indonesia was the main centre for entire Dutch trade in Asia and hence the Dutch trade was called Batavian Trade. Anglo-Dutch Rivalry: In 1622 A.D., 23 English merchants were killed by the Dutch at a place called Ambayani in Indonesia (Ambayani Massacre). In retaliation, the English defeated the Dutch in the Battle of Bedara in 1759 A.D. The Dutch surrendered all their settlements in India in return for all English settlements in Indonesia. 3. ENGLISH: John Mindan Hall was the first English to visit India in 1599 A.D. in the court of Akbar in Agra. In December 1600 A.D., English East India Company was founded as a St. Stock Company of shareholders. It was given a Charter with monopoly rights for 15 years by Queen Elizabeth. In 1604 A.D., the monopoly was extended for an indefinite period by James I. They founded their first settlement/factory at Machilipatnam in 1611 A.D. with the permission of Md. Quti Qutub Shah of Golconda through a Golden Farmana. In 1639 A.D., Francis Day obtained permission from The Raja of Chandragiri, to settle at Chennapatnam (Chennai). In 1655 A.D., Chennai Madras became the first English Municipality. In 1658 A.D., Madras Presidency was formed with Francis Day as the first President. In Bengal, the English established their first settlement at Harihara in 1633 A.D. George Boughton was the doctor that attended upon Suja (Doctor Diplomacy). In 1653 A.D., the English settled down at Dacca, Hugli, Cassimbazar, Chinsurah and Patna. www.laex.in -2- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History In 1692 A.D., Job Charnock fortified three villages: Sutanuti, Gobindapur and Kalikatta, and thus founded the city of Calcutta. In 1700 A.D., The English constructed Fort William at Calcutta and Bengal Presidency was formed with Charles Eyre as the first President. In 1667 A.D., Bombay became the main centre of English trade on the West Coast. English trade: Their maximum trade was in printed textiles called ‘Calicos’. Anglo-Mughal Relations: Captain Hawkins, Captain Edwards and Sir Thomas Roe were the English ambassadors to visit the court of Jahangir. In 1690 A.D., Aurangzeb defeated the English but permitted them to trade on the condition that they would pay Rs.3000 per annum. In 1717 A.D., Mughal Emperor Fraukh Siyar confetred Golden Farmana exempting the English from customs duties in Deccan and Gujarat. The farmana was given to Sir John Surman’s delegation. 4. DANES: Danish East India Company was founded in 1616 A.D. Their two settlements in India were Trancuber near Chennai and Serampur in Bengal. Of all Europeans, the Danes were the formost promoters of Chistianity in India. 5. FRENCH: The French East India Company was founded in 1664 A.D. at the instance of Jean Coulburt, the Finance Minister of Louis XIV who was called the ‘Financial Wizard of Europe’. The French founded their first settlement at Surat in 1666 A.D. at the instance of Francois Karan. Their other settlements were Machillipatnam, Pondicherry, Yaman, Mahe, Karaikal, and Chandernagar. The city Pondicherry was the main centre of French trade founded by French Governor, Francois Martin. ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY / CARNATIC WARS: First Carnatic War (1746 A.D.-1748 A.D.): Dupleix, the French Governor was the founder of the idea ‘French Empire in India’. The First Carnatic War started with Austrian War of Succession between England and France in Europe. Dupleix defeated the English and captured Fort St. George (Madras). The Nawab of Carnatic, Anwaruddin sent armies in support of the English. Dupleix defeated the armies of Anwaruddin in the Battle of Santhome (1747 A.D.) near Adyar (Chennai). It was the first Battle in modern India between native and foreign armies and it exposed the weaknesses that marred the Indian – army The war ended with Aixla Chapelle Treaty / Paris Treaty signed in 1748 A.D. Second Carnatic War (1749 A.D. – 1754 A.D): In this Civil war that started at Hyderabad. The French supported Muzaffar Jung and English supported Nasir Jung. In Carnatic, French supported Chanda Sahib and English supported Anwaruddin. Dupleix defeated the English armies in the Battle of Ambur (1749 A.D.). www.laex.in -3- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History However, Muzaffar Jung was killed by the Nawabs of Kurnool and Cuddapah. The French declared Salabat Jung as the Nawab of Hyderabad. In 1751 A. D., Salabat Jung gave away Northern Circars (Coastal Andhra districts) to the French. Later in 1751 A.D., Robert Clive, an accountant in the East India Company captured Arcot which was the capital city of Carnatic and held the fort for 53 days, following which Dupleix was suspended. The war ended with Pondicherry Treaty in 1754 A.D. Third Carnatic War (1756 A.D. – 1763 A.D.): It starled with Seven Years War between England and France in Europe. Bussiy, the French Commander was defeated by Colonel Forde in the Battle of Chendurti (1757 A.D.). The French lost Hyderabad. The most important battle was the Battle of Wandiwash or Vandavasi fought on Jan 22, 1760. The entire French navy under Count de Lallay was devastated by Colonel Eyre Coore of the English. The war, once and for all ended the fortunes of the French in India. The war finally ended with Paris Treaty in 1764 A.D. LATER MUHGALS: Bahadur Shah I (1707 A.D. – 1712 A.D.) His actual name was Mauzzam and was also called Shah Alam I. He abolished Jizia once again. He recognized Raja Ajit Singh as the ruler of Malwa. He made Guru Gobind Singh a Mughal Mansabdar and released Shahu from the Agra jail. He was also called Shah-i-Bakhaba for his policies. Jahandar Shah (1712 A.D.-1713 A.D.): For the first time, Mughal nobles became powerful in Mughal Court. Jahandar Shah came to power with the support of Wazir Zulfiqar Ali. Farukh Siyar (1713 A.D. – 1719 A.D.): He came to power with the support of Syyid Brothers called ‘the kingmakers’. They headed the Hindustani faction. In 1715 A.D., Banda Bahadur, the last Sikh leader was executed. Siyar preserved all the Mughal paintings in Red Fort. He was later killed by Syyid Brothers. Mohammed Shah (1719 A.D. – 1748 A.D.): His actual name was Roasha Akhtar and was unpopularly known as Rangeela. Syyid Brothers were killed by the Irani faction led by Sadat Khan and Asafjha Nizam-ul-Mulk. The Mughal empire distintegrated and Bengal became independent under Murshid Quli Khan. Sadat Khan founded the independent State of Oudh (Ayodhya) and Asafjha founded the independent State of Hyderabad. Nadir Shab attacked Delhi in 1739 A.D. and took away the Kohinoor Diamond and the Peacock Throne to Persia. Ahmed Shah (1748 A.D.-1754 A.D.): He was under the influence of court dancer Uddam Bai. Ahmad Shah appointed two years old infants as Governors of Punjab and Kashmir. Alamgir II (1754.A.D.-1759 A.D.): His actual name was Azizuddin. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 A.D. was fought during his time. Ahmad Shah Abdali, the king of Persia attacked seven times. Shah Alam II (1759 A.D.-1806 A.D.): www.laex.in -4- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History His actual name was Ali Guhar. Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 A.D. and Battle of Burar in 1764 A.D. were the major events during his reign. In 1765 A.D., he took part in the Diwani rights (rights to collect revenue) for the East India Company in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. He became the prisoner of the English after the Second Anglo Maratha war. Akbar II (1806 A.D. – 1837 A.D.): He conferred the title of ‘Raja’ upon Rammohan Roy and deputed him to London to plead the Pension case in the Privy Council. Bahadur Shah II Zafar (1837 A.D. – 1831 A.D.): He was the last Mughal emperor and the nomial head to lead the 1857 revolt. Mirza Ghalib, the father of Modern Urdu potery, was patronized by him. He was departed to Burma, where he died in 1865 A.D. AUTONOMOUS STATES: BENGAL: It was the richest Subah under the Mughals. Murshid Quli Khan was the real founder of the autonomus state of Bengal. In 1700 A.D, he was made Deupty Governor of Bengal by Aurangzaeb. He was the first to introduce revenue farming system in Bengal called Izradari (deciding the right of revenue collection by means of auctionaing). He founded the city of Murshidabad and shifted the capital city from Dacca to Murshidabad. He granted emergency loans called Taccavi to the cultivators. He nullified the Golden Farmana and forced the English merchants to pay customs duties. Mughal Emperor Md. Shah added Orissa to Bengal when Murshid was the Governor of Bengal. The second Nawab of Bengal – Sujauddin, Son-in-law of Murshid Quli got Bihar added to Bengal by the Mughal emperor Md. Shah. The third Nawab, Sarfaraz Khan was killed by Alivardi Khan who was then the Deupty Governor of Bihar. Alvardi Khan: He renovated the Calcutta Port harbor to encourage the external trade. The population of the city Calcutta increased phenomenally during his time due to the settlements of Lucknavi, Sindhi and Bania merchants. Siraj-ud-Daula (1756 A.D. – 1757 A.D.): The reason for the clashes between Siraj-ud-Daula and the English were: a) The English supported Shaukat Jung against Siraj. b) They refused to hand over the corrupt accountant, Kishen Das. c) They also refused to demolish the fortifications constructed in the wake of the Third Carnatic War. On June 18, 1756 Siraj declared war and defeated the English. The defeated English took shelter at Fulta islands. On June 20, 1756 the ‘Black Hole Incident’ is supposed to have taken place it was mentioned by Howell, the President of the Calcutta Council). Siraj changed the name of the city from Calcutta to Alinagar and appointed Manik Chand as the Governor of Calcutta and returned back to Murshidabad. In Dec 1756, Colonel Robert Cive and Admiral Watson were sent by Madras Government. In February 1757, the Alinagar Treaty was signed between Siraj and the English. www.laex.in -5- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History www.laex.in -6- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Clive conspired with the Chief Commandor of the Court, Rai Durlabh (the Zamindar of Burdwan), Manik Chand (Governor of Calcutta) and Jagat Seth, the richest banker of Bengal and Omi Chand, the rich Sindhi merchant (also the mediator between Clive and other conspirators). BATTLE OF PLASSEY – (June 23, 1757): Robert Clive commanded 3200 troops. Mir Nadan and Kishen Lal led the troops of Siraj. The battle was fought on the banks of river Bhagirathi. Siraj was killed by Miran who was the son of Mir Jafar. The Company got the 24 Parganas district. Clive was given the title ‘Sabtjung’ by the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II. Mir Jafar exempted the English East India Company from paying the customs duties in the extemal trade. In 1759 A.D., Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, the French Commander Jean Stuart Law and Pahalwan Singh, a Zamindar of Bihar attacked Bengal but were defeated. In 1759 A.D., the Dutch were defeated by the English in the Battle of Bedara. In 1760 A.D., Mir Jafar was replaced by Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal. MIR QASIM – (1760 A.D. – 1763 A.D.): He was the ablest successor of Alvardi Khan. He granted three Zamindaris (Midnapore, Chittagong and Burdwan) to the East Indian Company. He offered 50% share in the Churnam trade (betelnut trade) to the English and also sanctioned 5 lakh rupees as aid to the English in their war effort against the English. → He shifted the capital city from Murshidabad to Monghyr. → He employed Armenians to train the Bengal Army. → The main cause for differences between Nawab of Bengal and the East Indian Company was the misuse of Dastaks’ which were passes or lincenses issued by the President of the Calcutta Council to the English merchants claiming exemption from customs duties. In June, 1763, Mir Qasim abolished customs duties for all merchants in Bengal. BATTLE OF BUXAR – Oct 22, 1764 A.D: In July, 1763, Mir Qasim was defeated by the English. Mir Qasim, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and Suja-ud-Daula (the Nawab of Oudh) formed an alliance against the English. Hector Munro commanded the English army. He defeated the Allied forces at Buxar and Kara. Mir Qasim died in Delhi in 1777 A.D. Mir Jafar was then the Nawab of Bengal. - Allahabad Treaty – August 1765 A.D: It was signed between Clive and Suja-ud-Daula on one hand and; between Clive and Shah Alam. II on the other hand. Suja-ud-Daula altogether paid 40 Lacs (20 Lacs as compensation and 20 lacs for reataining him as Nawab) and also surrendered Allahabad and Kara districts to the English. Clive transferred Allahabad and Kara to the Mughal Emperor and agreed to pay 26 lacs rupees per annum as rental in return for the revenue collection rights (Diwani) in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Treaty made the English de facto and de jure rulers of Bengal. In 1765 A.D., Mir Jafar’ died and Nizam-ud-Daula became the Nawab. www.laex.in -7- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History In Sept 1765 A.D., Robert Clive introduced Dual Government in Bengal. Under that system, powers were divided into Diwani (revenue) and Nizamat (general administration). A Deupty Subedar was appointed who was answerable to the Company when he discharged the Diwani functions and to the Nawab when he dealt with Nizamat. Nanda Kumar was the first Depty Subedar under the new system. In 1772 A.D., Warren Hastings suspended the Dual Government and took over the administration. Nizam-ud-Daula was gratnted pension of 6 lac rupees per annum. MYSORE: The city of Mysore was founded by Kampaya Nayaka. However, the modern State of Mysore was founded by Krishnaraj Wadiyar. Haidar Ali: He joined the army of Mysore as an ordinary Sepoy and became the Fauzdar of Fort Dindigal. He employed the French to train the Naysore armies. He founded the first modern Indian Arms Factory at Dindigal. He also defended the Fort against the Marathas in 1755 A.D. and 1757 A.D. Between 1761 A.D. to 1765 A.D., Haider Ali expanded the Mysore empire by conquering Coorg, Malabar and Baramal. First Anglo Mysore War –(1767 A.D.-1769 A.D.): Warren Hasting, the Governor of Madras forged an alliance with the Nawab of Hyderabad and the Marathas. Haider defeated the English, captured Fort Arcot and entered the city of Madras. The war ended with the Madras Treaty in 1769 A.D. Second Anglo Mysore War (1779 A.D.- 1784 A.D.): The reasons for the war were as follows: 3. It was against the Madras Treaty. The British refused to support Haidar in 1775 A. D. when Marathas attacked Mysore. ii) The immediate cause was that in 1779 A.D. English attacked Port Mahe used by Haider Ali for importing war technology from France, Haidar was defeated in the Battle of Porto Novo by Colonel Eyre Coote. Haider died of cancer in 1782 A.D. War was continued by his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu was defeated in the Battles of Palghat, Trichy and Bednur. The war ended with Mangalore Treaty. Third Anglo Mysore War (1790 A.D. – 1792 A.D.): Lord Cornwallis was the Governor General. The immediate cause for the war was that Tipu Sultan attacked Travancore (Trivendrum), a friendly state of the English. The war ended with the Treaty of Srirangapatnam in 1792 A.D.  Tipu surrendered half of his territory, naid 5 Lakh pounds as compensation and sent his two sons as hostages to English. Fourth Anglo Mysore War (1798 A.D.-1799 A.D.): Lord Wellesley was the Governor General. The reasons were: 4. Tipu sent delegations to all the Islamic countries seeking support against the English. ii) He secretly invited Napolean of France against the English. www.laex.in -8- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History iii) The immediate cause for the war was that Tipu refused to sign the Subsidiary Alliance System. Tipu died at Srirangapatnam while fighting against the English. The territory of Mysore was divided. Accordingly, the Marathas got north of Tungabhadra, the Nizam of Hyderabad got the Rayalseema districts and the rest was taken over by the English. The city of Mysore was restored to the Wadiyars. However, in 1832 A.D., Lord William Bentick suspended the administration of Wadiyars and annexed Mysore. In 1882 A.D., Lord Ripon restored Mysore back to the Wadiyars. Tipu Sultan: He was the first Indian prince who realized the importance of merchant navy and banking system on the model of European Companies. > He had the best personal library with a collction of books numbering more than 40,000. → Personally he was interested in designing the ships. → He was the first to introduce missile technology in modern India. → He was the first Indian to send delegations to the Islamic countries. → As a secular ruler, he respected the Jagat guru of Sringeri and made liberal donations to the Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam. → He banned polygamy amongst Muslims. - He also introduced uniform currency, weights and measures and very effectively suppressed the landlords of Rayalseema called Poligars. + He was very influenced by the 1789 A.D. French Revolution, and so became a member of the Jacobian Club of France and called himself “Citizen Tipu”. + Tipu planted the Tree of Liberty at Srirangapatnam and introduced a new calendar on the model of the French with three weeks in a month. PUNJAB: Guru Angad was the Second Sikh Guru, who also invented the Gurumukhi script. He composed Janamsakhi, the life and mission of Guru Nanak. Guru Amardas, the third Sikh Guru composed Anand which is recited by Sikhs on all happy 9rganized. He also introduced Manji System (selecting disciples to preach and promote Sikhism). Guru Ramdas, the fourth Sikh guru introduced Masand System of collecting donations. He constructed Amritsar and Santokhsar lakes in the land granted by the Mughal Emperor Akbar to his daughter. The fifth Sikh guru Arjun Dey composed Adi Granth, the most sacred text of the Sikhs. He encouraged the Sikhs to trade in horses and assumed the title Satya Padshah (The true emperor). He supported Khusroo against Jahangir for the Mughal throne and therefore was executed. Guru Hargobind, the Sixth Guru was the first to wear the royal signs like Chatra and Kaiga. He was the founder of the idea Akali Takht (Sikh Brotherhood) and constructed Harminder Sahib in Amritsar. Guru Hariroi and Guru Harikishen were the Seventh and Eigth gurus repectively. Harikishen was the youngest to become a guru at the age of 5 and died of small pox. The Ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur, was a mansabdar of Aurangzeb and was also executed by Aurangzeb in 1675 A.D. Guru Gobind, the last Guru convened the Ananthapur Sahib convention in J & K). He also selected his five favourite disciples (Panch Piyasi / Pyare). He was the first to start the practice of wearing 5 K-s. The Sikh community transformed from a devotional sect to a martial army under the Guru. He ‘founded the Khalsa – the Sikh army under the leadership of Painda Khan. The Guru was killed at Nanded. Banda Bahadur was the last Sikh leader who executed by Farukh Siyar in 1715 A.D. During this period Pumjab was divided into 12 districts called Misls. www.laex.in -9- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Raja Ranjit Singh (1780 A.D. – 1839 A.D.): He belonged to the Sukharchakia Misl. Born at Guzranwala, he was appointed Governor of Lahore by Zaman Shah of Persia. Ranjit Singh defeated the confederacy of the Misldars in the Battle of Bhasin in 1803 A.D. and united the whole of Punjab. His Chief Commander Hari Singh conquered Peshwar and Sind. Anglo-Sikh Relations: In 1800 A.D., the English sent Yusuf Ali on a mission to the court of Ranjit Singh. Dr. Moorey sent by the English was also attended upon by the Raja. Alexander Burns carried rich presents to the Raja sent by Emperor Williams of England. In 1809 A.D., Amritsar Treaty was signed between Lord Minto and Ranjit Singh, recognizing river Sutlej as the border. In 1832 A.D., Ranjit Singh and Governor General William Bentick joined hands with each other in making Suja the Emperor of Persia. Suja gave the Kohinoor diamond to Ranjit Singh. His administration was known for simplicity and secularism. He commanded one of the best armies in Asia called Fauz Khas, trained by Italians, Germans and French. Zamzama was the most sophisticated cannon used by the Raja. , Anglo-Sikh Wars: First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846 A.D.): Dalcep Singh became the king of Punjab. Rani Zindan was the reagent of the king. Teja Singh commanded the Sikh armies. The war ended with Lahore Treaty in 1846 A.D. Sikhs paid 50 lac pounds as compensation and further surrendered Kashmir. Later the English sold / disposed off Kashmir to Gulab Singh for 50 lac pounds. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1849 A.D.): Mulraj, the Governor of Multan killed two British officers. Governor General Dalhousie declared a war. The Sikh armies were led by Mulraj. The Battle of Gujarat was called the ‘Battle of Guns’.. RESULTS: King Daleep Singh was deposed. He embraced Christanity and got settled in London. Rani Zindan was deported to Varanasi. Sir John Lawrence was made the Chief Commissioner of Punjab. During his tenure, Punjab became the richest province in India. He was able to win the loyalties of the Sikhs to the English during 1857 revolt. MINOR REGIONAL STATES: JAIPUR: The modern State of Jaipur was founded by Maharaj Sawai Jai Singh. He was deeply interested in astronomy and hence founded Jantar Mantars in Delhi and Jaipur. He performed the Aswamedha (in 18” Century) too. BHARATPUR: Bharatpur was an independent kingdom of the Jats, founded by Churaman and Badan Singh. Suraj Mal, the greatest leader of the Jats, was called ‘Plato of Jats’ for his deep interest in natural sciences TRAVANCORE: www.laex.in -10- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Travancore was founded by Raja Martandavarma. It was the first state to accept English education and to ban the custom of Sati. Raja Ravi Varma, the father of modern Indian painting belonged to the court of Martandavarma. The State of Travancore was annexed in 1805 A.D. when Velutambi, the Dewan of Travancore revolted against the British. AYODHYA (OUDH): The independent state of Oudh was founded by Sadat Khan. He was the mediator between Nadir Shah and the Mughal Emperor Md. Shah. Suja-ud-Daula of Oudh signed the Allahabad Treaty in 1765 A.D. with Robert Clive and the Varanasi Treaty with Lord Warren Hastings in 1774 A.D. As per the Varanasi Treaty, Warren Hastings agreed to merge Rohilkhand with Ayodhya for Rs 20 lacs. Wajid Ali Shah was the last Nawab of Ayodhya. Lord Dalhousie suspended Wajid Ali on the grounds of maladministration and annexed Ayodhya in 1856 A.D. HYDERABAD: The autonomous State of Hyderabad was founded by Asaf Jha Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1724 A.D. Nawab Nizam Ali was the first Indian to sign Subsidiary Alliance System in 1798 A.D. He also surrendered the so called Ceded districts (Rayalseema districts of A.P) in 1802 A.D. Sikandar Jha, the third Nawab surrendered Berar and Bidar to the English in 1853 A.D. Mir Usman Ali Khan was the last Nawab. By police action called Operation Polo, the Union government of India annexed Hyderabad into the Indian Union on September 17, 1949. Economic Impact of British Policies Revenue Policy: Up to 1793 A.D., the East India Company continued to follow the revenue farming system in Bengal Presidency. In 1782 A.D., Sir John Shore Committee was appointed to draft a new land revenue policy. The policy drafted was approved by Michael Dundas, the President of Board of Control and William Pete, the P.M. of England. The permanent settlement or Zamindari System was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 A.D. in Bengal Presidency, North Cauvery delta in Madras Presidency and Varanasi division. It covered altogether 19% of the total cultivable land under the company. Terms and Conditions of the System: The highest bidder in the auction was given the revenue collection rights. In the total revenue 10 1 collected, th was the share of the company collected Peshcush, the remaining th was the 11 11 commission of the Zamindar. The Pcshcush should not be less than what the Zamindar agreed at the time of auction. The Zamindars were also given judicial powers. The ‘sunset law’ came into force in the event of Zamindars becoming defaulters. www.laex.in -11- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History The system was introduced for a period of 10 years. Ryotwari System: Ryotwari System was first introduced by Thomas Munro, principal collector of Ceded districts and Col.Reed in 1803 A.D. in the Bararnal district of Karnataka. It was extended to Bombay Presidency and Assam. Under the system, the Ryot or farmer was the owner of the soil and given the title deed called ‘Patta’. In turn, he executed a written agreement called `kabuliyat (bond executed between Ryot and the State). The rent collected was 55%, the highest ever charged in Indian History. It was the most exploitative of the three systems. Mahalwari System: Mahalwari Systei’n was first introduced by Col.Bird in Agra and Gujarat. Mahal (a village or group of villages) collectively held the responsibility in sharing the rent and paying the same. The Taluqdars, the dominant peasants in the Mahal played an important role in the system as the middlemen between the peasants and the company. Effects of the Revenue Policy: Land became a commodity for the first time in the Indian history. Property rights in land were created for the first time. New rural classes were formed – The absentee landlords, money lenders and the wage earning working classes (coolies) were the new rural classes that emerged. Commercialisation of agriculture was encouraged. As a result, shortage of food crops took place causing famines. The 1832 Ganzan famine (Orissa) and 1875 Deccan famine were the worst famines. The revenue policy was the single most important cause for all the major civil rebellions (tribal movements, peasant revolts and Zamindari revolts), in modern India, against the British. Trade and Commerce Policy: The policy evolved along with the three stages of British colonialism. Under the 1 st stage called Mercantile Capitalism (1757 A.D. to 1813 A.D), the company exported large quantities of raw material that served as merchant capital for the British industries in London. In the 2nd stage, called Industrial Capitalism (1813 A.D – 1858 A.D) England made India not only an exporter of raw materials but an importer of all the industrial products of England. Secondly, the company followed a policy of destroying the native industries in order to provide markets for her own industries, Thirdly; England developed her own industries in India that further exploited the native resources (e.g. Railways). In the 3rd stage, Financial Capitalism started from 1858 onwards. The British reinvested their Finances in all the major industries like Banking, Steel, Cement and Jute. Commercial Legislation: www.laex.in -12- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History The 1813 Charter Act introduced Free Trade Policy. It ended the monopoly of the East India Company on all items of trade except Tea and Opium. The 1833 Charter Act completely ended the monopoly of the East India Company on all items of trade including Tea and Opium. Thus a complete Free Trade Policy was introduced. Effects of Commercial Policy on Indian Economy: De- Industrialisation: May be defined as a systematic destruction of the native industries. The industry. The 1st industry affected was India’s Ship building Industry. The Bania merchants used to manufacture very huge ships called Zankars (made of coir). These ships had mastered the Arabian Sea. The 2nd Industry targeted was textile Industry. Taxes were levied on Indian textiles at every stage of their production. ‘Moturpha’ was the tax on handlooms; ‘Siyur’ was the transitory duty levied on Indian Commodities. However, inspite of repressive policies, the textile industry continued to be dominated by the Indians. The British invested maximum in the plantation industry and soon it became the first major industry. Drain of Wealth: It may be defined as the migration of resources. Before 1857, the major item of drain was military expenditure. After 1857, home charges constituted the major item of trade. They were the salaries of Viceroy and his staff in India, Secretary of State and his staff in London. The Home charges were charged from ‘Indian Pool’. Up to 1919 A.D. Home charges were paid by the Indians. It was Dadabhai Naoroj, was first raised a voice and highlighted the ‘Drain Theory’ for the first time while addressing the House of Commons on th topic “What England owed to India”. The “Povery and Un-British Rule” was the thesis of Dadabhai on Drain Theory. Dinshwa Wacha was the first Indian to compute the drain in term of rupees. Development of Communications: It was the result of commercial policy of the British in India. By 1839, the G T Road between Calcutta to Delhi, was completed. In 1852 A.D., Steamers were introduced for the first time. In 1853 AD., Railways were also laid down, and in 1854 A.D. Posts and Telegraph were started. By 1858 A.D, the underground cable network between Calcutta and Delhi was also complete. The commercial policy was responsible for the emergence of two new social classes in the towns called the Middle Class (Professionals) and Compradore Bourgeoisie (Native Indian Capitalist Class). Civil Rebellions: Tribal Movements: The reasons for the various tribal movements were: British land revenue policy. Particularly Permanent Settlement introduced in 1793 A.D was the single most important factor for the tribal movement. www.laex.in -13- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Lord Hardinge I, the Governor General introduced Forest Laws in 1840 A.D, prohibiting Podu Cultivation (Shifting Cultivation), imposed taxes on forest products and banned the custom of Human sacrifice practiced by Khonds of Orissa and Gonds of Adilabad District of Andhra Pradesh. New administrative system constituted by the Police, Courts and Lawyers was also being resisted by the tribes. The Christian Missionary activities in the agency areas and the British deploying army in the agency were the other factors for the revolts as it was perceived as interference in the lives of the tribals. Popular Tribal Revolts: 1. CHUARS: Marabhum and Danabhum (W.B) were the first to revolt against British land revenue policy in 1769 A.D. 2. KHASIS- Assam: Revolted in 1828 – 1832 A.D, under the leadership of Tiruth Singh and Darmanik against the presence of Army in the agency area and British revenue policy. 3. KOLS – Chota Nagpur: Revolted in 1832 A.D, under the leadership of Buddho Bhagath against British Policy of expansionism. 4. KHONDS – Oissa: Revolted in 1846 – 1848 A.D, under the leadership of Chakra Besai against the British policy of interference when Lord Hardinge I banned the custom of human 14rganized. 5. KACHANGA – Kacher District in Assam: 1882 A.D, revolted under the British land revenue policy under leadership of Sambu Dan. 6. KOYA: Godavari Agency Area in Andhra Pradesh: 1922 – 1923 AD, revolted at Rampa –Chodavaram under the leadership of “Alluri Sitaram Raju” against the British forest laws and the exploitation of the tribes by the tribal chiefs called Muthadars. Sitaram Raju attacked Chintapalli Police Station with his Koya followers and killed notorious officer Bastian Rutherford who was the commissioner of operations against Sitaram. Raju was assassinated at Koyyagudem. 7. MUNDA –Bihar: 1899 – 9000 A.D, revolted wader the leadership of Birsa Munda against the Christian Missionary activities in the agency area and demanded their own rights in the soil. Birsa founded a new cult called `Singabonga’ and started the ‘Sons of the Soil’ movement called Ulgulan. He was deported in 1900 A.D, as a political prisoner. 8. NAIKDAS Panchamahal hills Gujarat: 1858 – 1868 A.D, revolted under the leadership of Roop Sing and Jaria Bhagath against British policy of expansionism and interference. They declared the formation of the 2nd independent tribal kingdom with Roop Singh as the head of the State and Jaria as the head of the religion. 9. OROANS Chota Nagpur: 1915 A.D, revolted under the leadership of Jatra Bhagath. It started as a reform movement called Bhagath Movement and also Tanabhaga movement preaching monotheism. Later in became anti – British and a part of the freedom struggle. 10. SANTHAL REBELLION: it took place in the Rajmahal hills in Bihar from 1854 to 1856 A.D. It opposed British land revenue policy, under the leadership of Siddhu and Kanhu. They defeated the British armies under General Borraugh and declared the formation of 1st independent tribal kingdom in modem India in the region between Bhagalpur and Patna. The importance of the Santhal revolt was: It was the first revolt that exploded the myth of European invincibility The revolt had direct impact on 1857 Sepoy mutiny. www.laex.in -14- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History 11. SAVARA: Srikakulam Agency Area, Andhra Pkadesh in 1857 A.D. It was led by Dundasena against the British Forest laws. 12. THADOE: Kuki, Manipur: 1917 A.D. It was led by Rani Gindinilu and her cousin Zodanang against the presence of the British in the agency areas. Imprisoned Rani Gidinilu was released in 1947 A.D, and was called the “daughter of Indian Independence” by Prime Minister Nehru. 13. BHILS: 1913 A.D. This rebellion was led by Govind Guru against British revenue policy. 14. CHENCHU: Nallamala Hills in Andhra Pradesh: 1922-1923 A.D. They revolted against British ‘Forest Laws under the leadership of K.Hanumanthu: He 15rganized-Palanadu’ which was a Forest Satyagraha against British forest laws. Zamindari Revolts: 1. Madras Presidency: a) The Zamindar of Bobbili was the first to revolt in modem India in 1757 A.D. Rangarao, the Zamindar of Bobbili opposed the domination of the French and challenged the French Commander Bussey in the Battle of Bobbili. b) The Battle of Padmanabham in 1794 A.D – the Raja of Vijayanagaram, Vijay Ramraj was killed by the British. He was the richest Zamindar in India and he refused to pay the arrears of Peshcush. c) Veerapandya Kattaboman, the Zamindar of Panchalakuruchi opposed British revenue policy and revolted during 1792 – 1799 A.D. d) Velatumbi, the Dewan of Travancore revolted during 1805-1809 A.D, against the British land revenue policy. He died in the fight and the State of Travancore was occupied. e) Kittur Uprising (1824 A.D): Rani Chennavva adopted Shivalinga Rudra. The British annulled her adoption and Chennavva 15 rganized the fight with support of her cousin, Rayappa. Both were imprisoned in Vellore Jail. f) Raja Rebellion (1827 A.D): Bahadur of Vishakapatnam opposed British revenue policy, revolted and lost his Zainindari. g) V.Narasimha Reddy, the Poligar of Koilakuntla in the Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh revolted against the British revenue policy during 1845 A.D and 1846 A.D. He was executed by the Russell Brigade. 2. Bengal Presidency: a) The Zamindar of Parlakinidi, Jagannat Gajapath Dev revolted against the land revenue policy and lost his land estate in 1829 A.D. b) In 1835 A.D. Dhananjay Banja, the Zamindar of Gunsur revolted against the revenue policy. c) Sambalpur Uprising (1827-1840 A.D). It was against the British policy of interference. Maharaj Sai, the king of Sambalpur died without heir apparent. The British interfered and declared his queen Mahan Kumari as Queen of Sambalpur. The revolt was led by Surendra Sai, the illegitimate son of Maharaj Sai. In 1840 A.D., Surendra was departed to Burma as political prisoner. www.laex.in -15- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History 3. Bombay Presidency: a) Ramosis Rebellion – (1822 A.D): The peasant tribe around Pune lost their land holdings with the Third Anglo Maratha war in 1818 A.D. They revolted under the leadership of Chittor Singh and Ununaji. The revolt ended when British agreed to provide employment to the Ramosis in the British army. b) Satavandi Rebellion: Khan Satvant, the ruler of Satavandi was deposed by the British in 1839 A.D. In his support, his commander Pond Sathvant 16rganized the revolt. c) Satara Outbreak / Disturbances: 1840 A.D – Pratap Singh, the king of Satara was deposed by the British in 1840 A.D. In his support, Dhar Rao, Narsing and Powar 16rganized the revolt. Though the State was restored, it became the first State annexed by Lord Dalhousie under the Doctrine of Lapse in 1848. A.D. d) Khodkari Rebellion-1845 A.D.: Khodkaris were the peasant tribes around Kolhapur. In 1845 A.D, they revolted against the repressive revenue policy of Dewan D.K.Pandit who was supported by the English. Central Province: a) Kutch Rebellion: 1815 A.D: Rao Barnal, the Dewan of Kutch opposed British revenue policy revolted. The State of Kutch was annexed. b) Bundela Uprising: 1842 AD.: The Bundelas of Sagar revolted under the leadership of Mdhukarshah and Jawahir Singh against the revenue policy. Both the leaders were executed. Civil Rebellions: 1) Sanyasi Rebellion -1772 A.D: It was the first civil rebellion of modern India, Icd by the Sanyasis of Giri order (founded by Adishankara). It started when Lord Warren Hastings banned the movement of Sanyasis visiting pilgrim centres in naked form. 2) Farazi Movement – 1804 A.D: It started in Faridpur district of West Bengal, founded by Shariatullah and his son Md. Mohisin. Though a reform movement in the beginning, it became a communal movement opposing Hindu landed aristocracy and the British in Bengal. 3. Wahabi Movement: It was actually founded by Abdul Wahab at Mazad in West Punjab. It was introduced into India by Syed Ahmed of Bareilly in U.P. in 1822 A.D. However, Sittana in NWFP became main centre of its activities. The movement was led by Vilayat Ali, Inayat Ali and Maqsad Ali. The Wahabis opposed Sikhs in Punjab and English in the rest of India. They preached Hindu – Muslim unity against the British. They played the commendable role in 1857 Sepoy Mutiny. With the failure of Sepoy Mutiny, the movement also ended. Sidney Cotton, the British Commander conducted series of campaigns on Sittana, the stronghold of Wahabis. 4. Pagal Panthi Movement – 1827 A.D: It was started by Karan Shah and his son Tipu, in the Sherpur district of Bengal. The Pagalpanthis opposed the exploitation of Hindu Zamindars and attacked British establishments. They were called “Pagals” for they demanded radical land reforms. 5. Namdhari and Kuka Movement: It was first started by Bhagat Jauhari Mal as a social reform movement in the Sikh community opposing consumption of liquor and male – female inequality. However, under Ram Singh, it became Kuka movement. The kukas regarded only Guru Gobind as the real Sikh guru, opposed the presence of Muslims in Punjab and attempted to revive the past glory of the 16rgan. In 1872 A.D, Ram Singh 16rganized the Kuka outbreak, captured the city of Amritsar and declared the formation of Kuka www.laex.in -16- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History government. The movement ended with the Ram Singh’s capture and he being deported to Burma as a political prisoner. Peasant Uprisings: 1. Indio Rebellion 1858 – 1860 A.D: It was against the injust system of ‘advances’ called “Tinkathia System”. The Indigo cultivators of Bihar and Bengal 17rganized the reb under the leadership of Biswas brothers- Bishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas. The main centres of the revolt were Darbhanga in Bihar, Nadia and Jessore in Bengal. The Bengali intellectual, Dinabandhu Mitra wrote the popular play, Nildarpan, depicting the plight of Indigo cultivators. The movement ended with the appointment of the First Indigo Enquiry Commission in 1860 A.D. It was the first Satyagraha Movement in Modern India. 2. Pabna Uprising 1872 A.D: The Bengal peasantry at Pabna revolted against the revenue policy of collecting rent in terms of cash. When the prices for agricultural commodities were falling down It ended with guarantees given by the British regarding the peasant proprietorship over the soil. 3. Deccan Riots 1857 A.D: During the Deccan famine in 1875 A.D, riots broke out in Ahmednagar and Pune districts of Bombay Presidency against the exploitations of Marwari moneylenders. The riots became armed rebellions under the leadership of Vasudev Balwant Phadke who is regarded as the “Father of modern Indian revolutionary terrorism”. The riots ended in 1879 A.D. with Deccan Peasants Relief Act that provided for guarantees of peasant proprietorship over the soil and imposed restrictions on both borrowing and lending. 1857 REVOLT: The British economic policy was the most important factor for the outbreak of the revolt. The impoverished peasantry, the deposed Zamindars and the unemployed youth in urban centres were the major participants in the revolt. The British policy of expansionism from the beginning was devoid of ethics and values. Lord Warren Hastings followed ‘Ring fencing policy’ i.e. the policy of creating friendly states around enemy States and occupying both in course of time. Lord Wellesley introduced ‘Subsidiary Alliance system and forced that upon the native princes and conquered more than half of British India in the same style. Lord Dalhousie with his ‘Doctrine of Lapse annexed the Indian State Satara in 1848 A.D, Jaitpur in 1849 A.D, Sambalpur in 1850 A.D, Hill State of Bhagat in 1852 A.D, Jhansi in 1853 A.D and Nagpur in 1854 A.D. However the States, Sambalpur and Bhagat were restored back. He abolished the titles of native Nawabs and refused to sanction pension to Nana sahib (the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II) after the death of the Peshwa in 1851 A.D. He also declared that the Red Fort belonged to British and occupied the State of Ayodhya in 1856 A.D. deposing Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab, on grounds of mal-administration. Lord Canning, the successor of Dalhousie declared that Mughal Emperor would not be permitted to use the royal title Jil-e-illahi (the shadow of God). In the social sphere, the progressive legislation of the British was held in contempt and suspicion by majority of Hindus and Muslims. www.laex.in -17- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History In 1802 A.D, Lord Wellesley abolished the custom of female infanticide practiced by the Rajputs with his Regulation VI. In 1829 A.D, Lord William Bentick abolished the cu Sati at the instance of Ram Mohan Rov. With his Regulation XVII. In 1856 A.D. Lord Dalhousie passed Widow Remarriage Act at the instance of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar However, the most controversial Act was the 1856 Religious Disabilities Act or Indian Inheritance Act that retained property rights for the converted against the spirit of Dharmashastra. Further, the company sanctioned aid to the Christian Missionaries in the form of Grants. The Company historian Willian Grant declared in the House of Commons that “It was divinely ordained task to transform India into Christianity”. Grievances of Sepoys: The Sepoys revolted for the first time in 1675 A.D. The Burchampore Regiment was the first to revolt against Robert Clive. It was also called ‘White Mutiny’ as most of the Sepoys who revolted were English. In 1806 A.D, the Vellore Sepoy Mutiny had taken place in support of Tipu Sultan and his family. The reasons for the revolt were – Sepoys were discriminated. No Indian sepoy was promoted beyond the rank of Jotedar’. Denied additional allowance called Batta, which was granted only to English sepoys. In 1856 A.D, Service Enlistment Act was passed prohibiting the sepoy from observing rituals and customs in military camps. In 1857 January, the Royal Enfield Gun was introduced to be operated by greased cartridges. The sepoys refused to use the cartridge as they suspected that cow and pig fat were used. In March 29, 1857, Mangal Pandey and his cousin Iswar Pandey of the 34 Native Infantry Regiment at Barrackpore 18rganized the revolt. On May 10, 1857, Capt. Bakht Khan of the 3 rd cavalry regiment at Meerut led the revolt. On 11th May, 1857, the sepoys occupied Delhi, declared Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India and the leader of the revolt. Centres and Leaders of the Revolt: Arrah in Bihar – Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh, the Zamindars of Jagadishpur 18rganized the revolt. 1. Bareilly in U.P – Khan Bahadur Khan, the head of the Rohillas was the leader of the Revolt. 2. Delhi – Bahadur Shah was the titular head. Capt.Bakht Khan was the real head of the revolt. 3. Faisabad – Maulvi Ahmedullah, the head of Wahabi sect led the revolt in support of Begum Hazrat Mahal, wife of Nawab Wajid Ali. It was a brilliant example of communal harmony and joint resistance of Hindus and Muslims against the British under his leadership. The Muslims handed over the disputed site to the Hindus. 4. Jhansi – Laxmi Bai, the widow of Gangadhar Rao 18rganized the revolt for the sake of her adopted son, Manohar Rao. www.laex.in -18- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History 5. Kanpur was the the main centre of the revolt. Nana Sahib, actually called Dondu Pandit led the revolt assisted by Anna Saheb, Azimullah and Tantia Tope. Nana perpetuated atrocities on all Europeans in Kanpur. 6. Lucknow – Begum Hazrat Mahal led the revolt for the sake of her son, Buzris Qadr. Suppression of the Revolt: Lord Canning was thc Governor General and Collin Campbell was the Chief Commander of Operations. Sir John Nicholson got back Delhi but died in the fight. William Taylor and Vincent Eyre defeated Kunwar Singh. Collin Campbell took back Kanpur. Sir Hugh Rose defeated Laxmi Bai. Nana Sahib, Khan Bahadur Khan and Begum Hazarat Mahal took asylum in Nepal. Maulvi Ahmedullah was killed by the Raja of Puwain. Tantia Tope offered guerrilla warfare but was handed over to to English by Man Singh, a friend of Scindia. He was executed on April 18, 1858. The main cause for the failure of the revolt was lack of co-ordination among the leaders of the revolt. Moreover all leaders and sections of the society who participated in the revolt had their own personal, independent agendas. There wasn’t any common objective or a single strong leader. The revolt also did not spread to south. Moreover, many sections of the society either remained neutral or also supported the English against the rebels. To be Page 86 Results of the Revolt: Lord Canning held the Ahmadabad Durbar and read out the Queen's proclamation which promised no further conquests in India, no further interference in the internal affairs of the Indians and that Indians woula be promoted in decision making. Accordingly, the 1861 Indian Councils Act, 1861 Indian Judiciary Act and 1861 Indian Executive Act were passed. The administration of company ended. Its two agencies- Court of Directors and Board of Control were abolished. The office of the Governor General also became the office of Viceroy (He was Governor General when he administrated British India while he acted as Viceroy when he dealt with Princely States). Lord Canning was the 1st Governor General - cum- Viceroy. An agency of 15 members called Indian Council was created in London to monitor the functioning of Viceroy and his staff. It was to be headed by Secretary of State for India (Lord Charles Wood became the first Secretary of State for India). There was a marked change in the Divide and Rule policy of British. After 1857, they promoted Muslims against Hindus. They divided Indian Army on regional, racial and communal grounds. www.laex.in -19- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History To cover up the losses during the revolt, Income Tax was levied from 1860 onwards. The revolt was described as a "Sepoy Mutiny" by the British historians like Col. Malleson. For Lord Canning it was a 'revolution'. For nationalist historian, V.D.Savarkar, it was the "First war of Indian Independence", For Tara Chand, it was the last attempt of medieval order to regain their lost power, prestige and privileges. 19th Century Indian Renaissance: It was an attempt to reform the Indian society in the light of modernisation, westernisation and the threat of Christianity. The most important factor for the renaissance was the introduction of English Education with its ideas of Humanism, Rationalism and Empiricism (Experiment and Experience). Hindu Reform Movements: 1. Atmiya Sabha: It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Kolkata in 1815 A.D. It was the first reform organisation. Its main theme was to promote Studies on Indian Philosophy (Upanishads). 2. Young Bengal Movement: It was started by Henry Vivian Deroziv, an anglo – Indian teacher, in 1824 A.D. His followers called Derozians were to first to start the practice of writing pamphlets on social and economic issues. Derozio inspired the whole generation of Bengali intellectuals including Vidyasagar and Keshab Chandra Sen. 3. Brahmo Samaj: Actually called Brahmo Sabha; was founded by Rammohan Roy in Kolkata in 1828 A.D., as a social reform organisation. Its main theme was 'Nirgunopasana' (formless worship or monotheism). Its social programs included - a) Eradication of social evils like Sati. b) Emancipation of woman. c) To demand for progressive education. d) To generate awareness on socio-economic and political issues. 87 Page At the instance of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the custom of Sati was abolished in 1829. A.D. He also prevailed upon Lord T.B.Macaulay in introducing English education in India. After the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Debendranath Tagore became the head of the Brahmo Samaj. In 1866 A.D, Brahmo Samaj was divided for the first time on the issue of defining the relationship between Brahmanism and Brahmo Samaj. The radicals called Kesab Chandra Sen, Ananda Mohan Bose and Shivnarayan Sastri left Brahmo Samaj and founded the All-India Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj under Debendranath Tagore continued as Adi Brahmo Sabha. In 1878 A.D, the Brahmo Samaj was divided for the second time. Anand Mohan Bose and Shivnarayan Sastri revolted against Sen and founded Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. The reasons for second split were. Kesab Chandra Sen introduced Kirtans and Bhajanas. He declared himself a prophet and encouraged hero worship.. He also performed child marriages. 4. Dharmo Sabha: It was a conservative movement founded by Radhakanta Deb in 1829 A.D. in Kolkata. It opposed the progressive outlook of Brahmo Samaj. 5. Tatwabodhini Sabha: It was founded by Debendranath Tagore in 1839 A.D. to promote studies on Indian Philosophy. He also started the journal "Tatwabhodini Patrika'. www.laex.in -20- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History 6. Manava Dharma Sabha: It was founded in 1844 A.D, at Pune by Durga Ram and Mancaram to promote Brahmo ideas. 7. Paramahamsa Mandali: Founded by Dadoji Pandurang in Bombay in 1849 A.D. to promote Brahmo ideas, particularly monotheism. 8. Radhaswamy Satsang / Samaj: It was founded in 1861 A.D in Agra by Tulsiram (also called Shivdayal Sastri). The Satsang apart from monotheism, emphasized on a disciplined life without vices. 9. Prarthana Samaj: It was founded in 1867 A.D. in Bombay by Atmaram Pandurang as a branch of Brahmo Samaj in Bombay Presidency at the instance of Kesab Chandra Sen. Justice M.G.Ranade joined the Samaj in 1870 and was called the “Architect of the Samaj”. Its social programs included - Imparting education to woman and the downtrodden. To find widow homes. The Samaj also spearheaded the lower caste movements in the Bombay Presidency. 10. Arya Samaj: It was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, first in Bombay in 1875 and later at Lahore in the same year. The social programs of Arya Samaj included: Promoting studies on Vedas. The Samaj opposed the domination of priestly classes, encouraged widow remarriages, founded schools, colleges, hospitals and provided social service. The two controversial programs of the Samaj were: Shuddhi movement - (Purification movement) by which Arya Samaj tried to bring the converts back to Hinduism. Cow protection movement. 88 Page With these two movements, the Samaj very often caused communal tensions between Hindus, Christians and Muslims. After the death of Dayanand, the Samaj was divided on the issue of medium of instruction. Swami Shraddhananda demanded Sanskrit as the medium and founded Gurukul at Haridwar (Gurukul Section ) where as Lala Hansraj and Lala Lajpat Rai demanded English as the medium (College Section). He founded the Oriental College at Lahore. 11. Theosophical Society: It was founded in 1875 at New York by Madam H.P.Blavatsky and Col.D.H.Olcott. The main purpose of the society was to promote studies on Theosophy (occult sciences). In 1878, the centre was shifted to Adayar in Chennai. Madam Annie Besant became the President of the Society in 1904, and led the Home Rule Movement demanding self governance for India. 12. Deccan Education Society: It was founded in 1884 in Bombay by Gopal Ganesh Agarkar to provide education to the downtrodden and depressed classes. 13. Indian National Social Conference: It was founded by Justice M.G.Ranade in Bombay in 1884 to strengthen the cause of reformism. It served as a rehearsal for the formation of Indian National Conference in the next year. 14. Ramakrishna Math: It was founded by Swami Vivekananda at Belur in 1887 to promote the universal religion of Paramahamsa. The Swamis of the Math were being trained at Belur. Vivekananda also founded Ramakrishna Mission as a social service organisation in 1891. www.laex.in -21- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History 15. Deva Samaj: Was founded by Shivranjan Agnihotri in Lahore in 1897 as a branch of Brahmo Samaj. The members of the Samaj however worshiped Gurus and scriptures. Social Service Organisations 1. Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the 'Servants of India Society' in Bombay in 1905. 2. "Poona Seva Sadan' was founded by Pandita Rambai, G.K.Devadutt and Maharshi Karve in 1909 at Poona to provide education and shelter for widows. 3. 'Social Service League' was founded in 1911 by N.M.Joshi (founder of AITUC) in Bombay for promoting better living conditions for the working classes in the Bombay slums. 4. 'Seva Samiti' was founded by H.N.Kunznu in Allahabad in 1914 as a social service organisation. Islamic Reform Movements 1. Dechand Movement: It was founded by Maulana Hussain Ahmed at Deoband (UP) in 1866. It gave a liberal interpretation of Quran, accepted English education and also preached HinduMuslim unity. Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad was inspired by the movement. 2. Ahmediya Movement / Khidayani Movement: It was founded at Khidayan in west Punjab by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed. He was regarded as Prophet and he encouraged Muslims in trade and commerce. It was the most organised movement against the activities of Arya Samaj and Christian missionaries in Punjab. 3. Aligar Movement: It refers to all the activities of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan for the overall development of the Muslims in India. Sir Syed Ahmed realised the importance of the English education and founded Anglo - Mohammedian School at Aligarh in 1875. It became a college in 1877, the precursor of AMU. In the beginning itself, he had declared that "Hindus and Muslims were two eyes of Mother India". However, under the influence of the first Principal of the college, Theodore Beck, Sir Syed Ahmed became a reactionary and a conservative and discouraged Muslims to join the Congress Party. 4. Aharan Movement: It was founded by Maulana Md.Ali, Zafar Ali and Hakim Azmal Khan, at Lucknow against the loyalist policies of Sir Syed Ahmed. The movement gave a call for Hindu - Muslim unity. Conservative Movements in Islam: 1. Ahal -I- Hadis: Founded by Maulana Nazir Hussain, it opposed the liberal interpretation of Quran. 2. Ahal - I - Khoran: Founded by Abdullah Chakralavj, it opposed English education and modernization. 3. Nudwab-ul-ulema (Association of Priests): It opposed liberal trends in Islam and also English education. The movement was founded by Maulana Shibili Numani. 4. Barelvi Movement / School: It was started by Riza Khan which opposed liberal and progressive trends in Islam. www.laex.in -22- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Sikh Reform Movement / Akali Movements - (1920-1925): It started against the misuse of Sikh Gurudwaras by the priestly class called Mahants. The Akali movements ended with 1925 Sikh Gurudwara Act that provided for Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC). Parsi Reform Movement: Also called the Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha, it was started in 1851 in Bombay by the leaders of Parsi community, who included Naoroji Furdomji, S.S. Bengali and Dadabhai Naoroji. The Sabha gave a call for overall development of the Parsi community and also preached male-female equality. Madam B.R.Cama, called the 'Mother of Indian Revolution' was the product of the movement. Reasons for the Lower Caste Movement: Sanskritisation process was the constant factor which encouraged lower class moveinents. The other factor which was instrumental was the commercialisation of agriculture which benefited the intermediate castes and these provided leadership to the movement. The British introduced for the first time in India- 'rule of law' and 'equality before law'. Lord Macaulay introduced both these ideas in his Regulation XI. In the new administration, caste based occupations were replaced by merit. This created a favourable atmosphere for the lower caste movements. The British conducted Census form 1901 onwards on the basis of caste and community for the purpose of reserving jobs, as a result of which each caste and community came out with claims and counter claims. Christianity was equally responsible by imparting education and by infusing a sense of self respect among the lower castes. Education made them aware of their rights and thus inspired them to fight for it. Movements in the Madras Presidency: 1. In 1916, the South India People's Association, a political party which later got transformed into the Justice Party was founded by Pretty Tyagaroy Chetty, C.M.Nair and T.N.Mudalian. The party opposed the domination of Brahmins in politics, education and government services. The party contested the 1923 general elections and formed the first elected government in Madras Presidency under Subbarayalu Reddiyar as the Chief Minister. However, it soon lost its support from the lower castes as it catered more to the interests of the intermediate castes. 2. Self respect movement: It ws started by E.V.Ramaswamy Naiker, popularly known as 'Periyar'. It was the first to start the practice of burning Manusmriti and the marriages without priests. Periyar founded the journal "Kudi Arasu' to propagate his ideology. The movement even inspired the formation of political parties like DMK, championing the cause of the Dravida culture. 3. In Kerala, C.V.Raman Pillai wrote the novel 'Marthandaverna' exhorting the past glory of the Nair.community. Munnattu Padmanarbho Pillai founded the Nair Welfare Society. 4. In Kerala, Narayan Guru championed the cause of untouchable Ezhava community and demanded temple entry. He started the movement S.N.D.P.Y (Sriman Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam) with the slogan 'one God, one Religion and one Mankind'. www.laex.in -23- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History 5. In Karnataka, Justice C.R.Reddy founded 'Prajamitra Mandali', a political Party on anti Brahmin platform. 6. In Andhra Pradesh, Enugula Veeraswamy Naidu started anti-bonded labour movement (Vetti Movement). 7. Tripuraneni Ramaswamy Chaudhuri started anti-Brahmin movement called Brahmana Vyatirekhodyamam. Movements in Bombay Presidency: Mahatma Jyotiba Phule was the pioneer of the lower caste movements in Bombay Presidency. A Mali by profession, Jyotiba championed the cause of untouchable Mahar Community. He founded "Satya Sodhak Samaj' and wrote the famous Gulamgiri and Sarvajanik Satyadharmadha Pustak. In 1904, V.M.Shinde founded the Bombay Presidency Depressed Class Mission Society. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar The first graduate from the Mahar community, he submitted his thesis on "Indian Rupee". He was employed in the service of the State of Baroda, founded the journals Mukhnayak (Dumb Man) and Bahishkrita Bharatha (Excommunicated Bharata). He founded the All India Depressed Class Association Federation and organised the famous Mahar Satyagraha demanding temple entry and usage of common civil amenities for the depressed classes. He participated in all the three Round Table Conferences and demanded separate communal electorates for the depressed classes. Accordingly, the British P.M. Ramsay MacDonald announced "Communal Award in August, 1932' which provided separate communal electorates to the depressed classes. Against the award, Gandhi observed fast unto death as protest and finally Poona Pact was signed between caste Hindus represented by Rajendra Prasad and Manooji with the depressed class leaders Dr.B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Raja As per the Pact, Congress agreed to reserve double the number of the seats for the depressed classes in the general electorate and depressed classes agreed to forgo their claims for separate communal electorates. Labour Class Movements: A full fledged labour class emerged in modern India for the first time in the railway industry. However, the first labour organisation / union was Bombay Mill Hands Association, founded by N.M.Lokhande. Trade Unionism started in India with World War I and Soviet Russia Revolution in 1917. The first Trade Union in modern India was the Madras Mill Workers Association founded by B.P.Wadia in 1918. In 1920, N.M.Joshi founded the AITUC. It held its first session in Bombay, presided over by Laia Lajpat Rai in 1928. The AITUC was divided for the first time. N.M.Joshi left AITUC and founded ITUF (Indian Trade Union Federation). The reason for the first split was that the Communist domination increased in AITUC. Differences arose between N.M.Joshi and Communists in sending the delegates to the Brussels Conference. In 1940, Joshi also founded Hind Mazdoor Sevak Sangh, an organisation for the labour class. Labour Class Legislation: The Indian Factory Act, 1881 was the first labour class legislation which was introduced by Lord Ripon. It regulated the working hours for woman and child labour. In 1923, Indian www.laex.in -24- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Workmen Compensation Act was passed providing rules for compensation. In 1926, Indian Trade Union Act was passed legalising the formation of Trade Unions. In 1929, the Royal Commission on Indian Labour was appointed under the chairmanship of J.M.Whitley (Whitley Committee). In 1935, the Royal Delimitation Committee under the chairmanship of Hemand Lawry recommended the separate electorates for the labour classes. Thinkers in Modern India: Raja Ram Mohan Roy He has been called 'Father of Modern India', Pioneer of Indian Renaissance and Father of Modern Indian Journalism for many reasons. He founded the journals, "The Bengal Gazette", "Mirat-ul-Akbar" (The first Journal in Persian language), "Bangadoota" and "Sambvad Kaumudi" (The first Journal to discuss Politics), and wrote two pamphlets - "Precepts of Jesus Christ, a guide to Peace and Harmony" and "Tufath--ul - Nuwahuddin" (Gift of monotheists). He was the first Indian to oppose the restrictions imposed on freedom of expression. Akshay Kumar Dutt: He was the first Indian Marxist social scientist who studied the Indian society in terms of class. Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagar: He is called the "Father of Modern Bengali Prose". As the Princinal of Calcutta Sanskrit College, he admitted non - Brahmins. He was a devoted reformer, championing the cause of Widow Remarriage Act in 1856. Kesab Chandra Sen: He founded Indian Reform Association in 1870 and was instrumental for the 1872 Indian Native Marriage Act that was passed against child marriages. He was also responsible for the branches of Brahmo Samaj in India called Prarthana Samaj in Bombay Presidency and Veda Samaj in Madras Presidency. Ramakrishna Paramhansa: A ctually called Gangadhara Chattopadyay, he was popular as the "Saint of Dakshineswar". He preached universal Religion. Swami Vivekananda: The Chief disciple of Ramakrishna, his actual name was Narendra Dutta. He was called Vivekananda by the Maharaja of Khetri and he participated in the World Parliament of Religion in Chicago in 1893, and the Congress on the History of World Religions in Paris. He was also called the "Spiritual Ambassador of India", and founded the journals 'Udbodhana' in Bengali and 'Prabuddha Bharata' in Englsih. Sister Nivedita: She was the ardent disciple of Vivekananda and was actually called Margaret Nobel. Swami Dayananda Saraswati: His actual name was Mul Shankar. He was bom at Tankara in Gujarat, and became the disciple of Swami Birajananda. He founded the journals, 'Veda Bhasya' and 'Veda Bhasya Bhumika' and wrote the famous Satya Artha Prakash. www.laex.in -25- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Bal Shastri Jambhekar: He founded the joumals Digdarshan and Bombay Darpan and used journalism to counter the child marriages in Bombay Presidency. Gopal Hari Deshmukh: Popular as Lokhita Wadi (his pen name), he wrote a series of articles against child marriages and encouraged widow remarriages. Kandukuri Veeresalingam: Called 'Vidyasagar of the South', he founded Rajamundry Reform Association and Hitakarini Samajam to encourage woman education and widow remarriages. He is also called the “Father of Modern Telugu Prose”. He wrote the first novel in Telugu literature called Rajashekara Charitra. Raghupati Venkataratnam Naidu: Called “Ram Mohan Roy of South India", he founded Kakinada Reform Association for woman education and widow remarriages. He was also called Kulapati (Vice Chancellor). Justice M.G.Ranade: Known as the "Modern Rishi”, this architect of Prathana Samaj was a moderate congress leader. He was also a critic of "Drain of Wealth" Freedom Struggle: The unique aspects of the freedom struggle were: The longest mass based struggle in the history of mankind and the most prolonged struggle for the liberation of a country. The only struggle that accepted non - violence or Satyagraha as the means to attain freedom. The Factors responsible were: The repressive and reactionary policies of Lord Lytton and the progressive liberal policies of Lord Ripon, both substantially contributed to the spirit of nationalism. Lord Lytton held the Grand Imperial Durbar in 1877 in Delhi, wasting public money when Deccan was reeling under severe famine. Moreover, Queen Victoria was declared as the Empress of India for the first time. In 1878, Lytton introduced Vernacular Press Act for curbing the autonomy of Indian Journalism and in 1879 to discourage the Indian middle classes from entering into the Civil Services, he reduced the upper age limit from 21 to 19 and also introduced Statutory Civil Services (reserving 1/6 of the total number of posts for the Indian princely families and landed aristocracy). Lord Ripon on the other hand, introduced a series of liberal and progressive reforms. In 1881, the first Indian Factory Act was passed, regulating the working hours for the women and children. In 1882, the Statutory Civil Services were abolished and Indian Famine Code was introduced the first Indian Famine Commission was appointed under Sir Richard Stratchy, 1878). In 1882, in order to promote the primary education, Lord Ripon founded the first Indian Education Commission (also called Hunter Committee). The Committee recommended the privatisation of education. www.laex.in -26- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History In 1882, the Vernacular Press Act was abolished, reyiving the freedom of press. In 1882, Lord Ripon provided for the compulsory grants to the autonomous bodies and for this he was regarded as the "Father of Modern Local Self Governance". In 1883, to give an effect to Equality before Law and the Rule of Law, Lord Ripon introduced Ilbert Bill. When the bill was passed with amendments in Jan 1884, it marked the beginning of India's national movement. The pre-congress political organisations were equally responsible for the political consciousness. The Bengal Land Flolder's Society, founded by Dwarakanath Tagore in 1830 in Calcutta, was the first political party in Modern India. In March 1852, the Bombay Native Association was founded. It was the first political party in Bombay Presidency started by Jagannath Shankar Seth. In 1852, Madras Native Association was formed the first political party in Madras Presidency. In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji founded the East India Association in London. In 1867, Mary Carpenter, biographer of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, founded the National Indian Association in London. In 1870, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded by M.G.Ranade and G.V.Joshi. In 1872, Indian Society was founded by Ananda Mohan Bose in Kolkata. It became Indian Association under Surendranth Banarjee in 1876. It was the most dynamic political party before the Congress. In 1884, Madras Mahajanasabha was founded by G.S.Ayyer, Veeraraghavachari and P.Anandacharyulu. In 1885, Bombay Presidency association was founded by Pherozesahah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji and K.T.Telang. Journalism also played a commendable role. The “Bengal Gazette" started by James Aguesties Hickey was the first journal in Modern India founded in 1780 in Kolkata. The "Bengal Gazette" founded by Harishchandra Ray was the first journal by an Indian in 1818. "Rastgoftar" was the first journal in Marathi, founded by Dadabhai in 1852. Sisir Kumar Gosh started "Amrit Bazar Patrika"(1868), Girirsh Chandra Gosh founded "Hindu Patriot”, Bankim Chandra Chattarjee founded 'Bangadarshan', Tilak founded “Kesari” and “Maratha” (English) (both edited by Kelkar), G.S.Ayyar and Veeraraghavachari founded the newspaper "The Hindu" and G.S.Ayyar also started "Swadesi Mitran". Formation of Congress: In 1885, at the instance of A.O.Hume, 72 delegates from different political parties met at Sir Tejpal Sanskrit College from December 28-31 in Bomaby. The name "Indian National Congress” for the new party was suggested by Dadabhai Naoroji. W.C.Banerji became the www.laex.in -27- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History first President. A.O.Hume was the general secretary who was also called the Founder Father of Congress. The "Safety Value Theory” is actually a criticism against Hume attributing ulterior motives in forming the Congress. Lala Lajpat Rai and Lala Hansraj were the critics of Hume. Hume wrote Iwo pamphlets - 'A Rising Star in the East' and 'Old Man's Dream'. Age of Moderators (1885 - 1905): Congress since its inception was dominated by educated middle class, the landed aristocracy and the capitalist classes. These sections formed the majority of Congress. The moderate ideology was - The British colonialism and Indian nationalism were not contradictory, rather complementary. For the moderates, development of England was the development of India. The British were invincible. As such, by a policy of co-operation, India could better secure her interests.. England, the mother of parliamentary institutions, would encourage the same in India and therefore Indians should remain loyal to British. The moderate method of struggle was defined as "Constitutional means of Agitation" (as opposed to the popular means of agitation and sedition). It was well explained by Gokhale in his journal Sudhar'. It is also called as the method of "Petition, Prayer and Protest". The demands of the moderates included: Expansion of legislative councils. Meaningful representation of Indian members. Separation of Executive from Judiciary. Increasing the upper age limit for Indian Civil Service aspirants and for conducting Civil Service examinations in India and England simultaneously. 50% reduction in rent, export duties and military expenditure. Lord Dufferin, the Governor General and Lord Goss, the Secretary of State welcomed the formation of INC. Moderate Politics: The relation between the moderates and the British became strained for the first time in Madras session in 1887, presided over by Badruddin Tyabji (the first Muslim president of INC). The words 'Self - Governance' were mentioned for the first time. Lord Dufferin criticised congress as a “Microscopic Minority". The 1888 Allahabad Session of INC was presided over by George Yule. He was the first Englishman to preside over INC. Achievements of Moderates: On the request of the Moderates in 1886, Lord Dufferin appointed Aitchison Committee on Indian Civil Services. The upper age limited was increased to 22 years on the recommendation of the committee. The 1892 Indian Council Act was passed leading to the expansion of legislative councils. On the request of moderates, the Calcutta University Act of 1904 and Calcutta Municipal Corporation Act of 1904 were passed. These two Acts that affected the autonomy of the local bodies were revoked by Lord Curzon. www.laex.in -28- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History The most important achievement of the moderates was their economic critique of colonialism, called the Drain Theory that exposed the exploitative nature of colonialism. Failures of Moderates: They restricted the social base of the Congress to the elites. They failed to understand the clash of interests between colonialism and nationalism. Their major failure was that they could not stop the partition of Bengal from taking place which was done much against the public will. Age of Extremists -(1905-1915): Aurobindo Ghosh was the founder of extremist thought. His pamphlet 'New Lamps for the Old' is regarded as the Bible of Extremism'. He wrote a series of articles in Bangadarshan, the journal of Bankin Chandra Chatterjee, criticising the moderate method of struggle as 'political mendicancy'. He portrayed India as 'Mother and appealed to the emotional aspect of Indian nationalism. Rajnarayan Bose and Ashwini Kumar Dutta were the other early extremists. Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar wrote Nibandhamala, a collection of poems with extremist thought. Within the Congress, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the Lokmanya was the foremost extremist. He was also called the Father of Indian Unrest by Valentine Chixole. He founded Ganesh Festival Committee in 1893, organised no tax campaigns in the famine affected Bombay Presidency in 1894 and founded Shivaji Festival Committee in 1895. He was sentenced for 18 months imprisonment for supporting Chapekar brothers who killed the English officers, Iryst and Rand in 1897. He wrote 'Gita Rahasya'. Lala lajpat Rai was known as 'Punjab Kesari' and he wrote ‘Unhappy India'. Bipin Chandra Pal, the founder of the journal New India' was the other extremists in the Congress. The extremists thought derived its support from the teachings of Vivekananda and Dayanand Saraswati. The extremist slogan 'Swaraj' was first introduced by Arya Samaj. The events outside India like Abyssinia defeating Italy and Japan defeating Russia in 1905 did have their impact on extremist movement in India. Vande Mataram Movement (1905-1909): Lord Curzon announced officially the partition of Bengal on July 4, 1905. On October 16, 1905 partition came into effect. The official version of partition was 'administrative convenience'. However, the real reason behind the partition was to divide Indian society into Hindus and Muslims and further to divide Congress by creating a rift between Moderates and Extremists. Bipin Chandra Pal started the movement with Kali Puja and festival and became the first Indian leader to tour India before Gandhi. Rabindranath Tagore and Nabakrishna Chakraborthy composed the patriotic songs. The slogans of the movement were 'Swdeshi' and 'Swaraj'. Under the Swadeshi movement, Rabindranath Tagore founded Shanti-Niketan and Satish Mukharjee founded Dawn Society to impart native education. Tagore gave a call for Rakhi Bandhan as a token of Hindu - Muslim unity and wrote articles under the title 'Atma Shakti'. While the movement was going on, differences started between Moderates and Extremists for the first time in Calcutta Session in 1906 on the question of whether to make the movement www.laex.in -29- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History national or restrict it only to Bengal and on the issue regarding the President of the Session. The extremists wanted Tilak to be President. However, Dadabai Naoroji became the President as a compromise candidate. The Calcutta Session was a victory for extremism as: 1. The extremist ideas 'Swdeshi' and 'Swaraj' were accepted by the Congress for the first time. 2. Congress condemned the decision of Partition. 3. Tilak became the Chairman of the Reception Committee. In 1906, the All India Musim League was founded by Salim Ullah, the Nawab of Dacca and Aga Khan. In 1907, the Surat session was held. Congress was divided for the first time (First Split) on the issue of election of president. The extremist candidate Tilak was defeated by the moderate candidate Rasbehari Bose. The moderates expelled the extremists from the Congress. The extremists founded the Liberal Party and called themselves 'Neo - Nationalists'. Tilak was trialled on charges of disturbing public order and was sentenced for 6 years imprisonment, then departed to Mandalay jail in Rangoon. Bipin Chandra Pal withdrew from active politics. Lala - Lajpat Rai also died due to injuries inflicted during laathi charge. Following this extremism suffered a setback. The Vande Mataram movement ended with Morley - Minto Reforms in 1909. Differences between Moderates and Extremists: Moderates demanded Self Governance; extremists demanded Swaraj. Moderates believed in co-operation; extremists believed in confrontation. Moderates followed constitutional means of agitation; whereas extremists followed popular means of agitation and passive resistance (non-cooperation). In 1911, Governor General Lord Hardinge II annulled the partition of Bengal. In the same year, Imperial Capital city was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi. Muslim league was not consulted when these two things materialised. In 1914, World War II started. Turkey which was predominantly Islamic supported Germany against England. In 1915, Gandhi retuned from South Africa on the invitation of his Guru, Gokhale. Tilak returned from Mandalay jail and Madame Anne Besant announced her entry into Indian Politics. Home Rule Movement (1916-1917): Madame Anne Besant suggested the idea of "Home Rule" for the first time in 1915 Bombay session, presided over by Lord S.P.Sinha. However, Tilak was the first to form 'Home Rule League' in April, 1916. Madam Anne Besant started her 'Home Rule League' in Madras in October 1916. Tilak gave his historical statement "Swaraj is my Birthright" during the Home Rule movement. Madame Anne Besant was supported by George Arundale, Indulal Yagnik and B.P.Wadia. She started two journals - "New India" and "Common Wealth" for promoting the ideas of Home Rule. The movement demanded self governance and native education. At the instance of the Madame Anne Besant, national colleges and schools were found, particularly at Madanapalli and she was instrumental for the establishment of Varanasi Sanskrit Vidyapith in association with M.M.Malviya. The movement attracted Md. Ali Jinnah and Motilal Nehru. The Sindhi community entered freedom struggle for the first time with the Home Rule movement. The movement ended with the August Declaration, 1917 made by Viceroy Lord Chelmsford, promising self-governance after the end of World War I. www.laex.in -30- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History Lucknow Pact (1916): In the Lucknow Session in 1916, presided over by A.C.Majumdar, the expelled extremists were welcomed to join back Congress. At the instance of Madame Anne Besant, Lucknow Pact was also signed by Congress and Muslim League, extending mutual support against the British. The Congress was represented by Rajendra Prasad and Jinnah represented the Muslim League. In 1917, the Calcutta session was presided over by Madam Anne Besant, the first woman President of the Congress. Gandhian Era (1915 onwards): Gandhi left for South Africa to plead for Abdullah and company and effectively championed the cause of Indian indentured labour against the white racist regime. He was thoroughly influenced by Leo Tolstoy's 'The Kingdom of God is within you', John Ruskin's 'Unto the Last', Edwin Arnold's 'Song Celestial' (commentary on Bagawad Geeta) and French Philosopher Thoreau's Civil Disobedience? Near Durban, he founded the 'Phoenix Ashram' (Tolstoy Ashram) and also the journals 'The Indian Opinion' and 'Hind Swaraj' in South Africa. In India in 1916, he founded Sabarmati Ashram near Ahmadabad. In 1917, he started his first political campaign at Champaran in Bihar for supporting the cause of Indigo cultivators. He was invited to Champaran by Rajedra Prasad and was assisted by A.N.Sinha and Mahadev Desai. In 1917, his second campaign started at Kheda in Gujarat called Kheda Satyagraha against the hike in land revenue demand. In 1918, Ghandi mediated between the workers and the management in the Ahmadabad Mill Workers strike. With these three movements he emerged as the "Messiah of the working classes”. Gandhi supported the British in World War I and was given the title Kaiser-i-Hind (Tiger of India) and nicknamed 'Recruiting Sergeant. Non-cooperation movement - (1921-1922): Reasons In 1917, a Sedition Committee was constituted under Justice Rowlatt called the Rowlatt Committee to suggest ways and means of handling the problem of terrorism. The committee recommended Four Acts, popularly called "Black Acts" as they severely undermined the civil liberties. Justice Shankaran Nair, the Indian member of the committee and the member of the Viceroy's Executive council resigned in protest against the Acts. Gandhi gave a call for National Protest Day against the Act on April 6, 1919. On April 13, 1919, on the day of Baisakhi festival, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place in Amritsar. General Dyre ordered for indiscriminate firing that left more than 540 dead and many more injured. Rabindranath Tagore surrendered his Knighthood in protest against the act. The 1919 Government of India Act, also called Montague - Chelmsford Reforms were announced. However, it disappointed the Indian leadership as it did not provide for self governance. Instead, Dyarchy was provided for against the spirit of August Declaration made in 1917. Khilafat Issue: www.laex.in -31- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History After the World War I, in the Paris Peace Conference, England threatened to abolish the office of Calipha. In protest, the Ali bothers (Maulana Md.Ali and Shaukat Ali) founded the All India Khilafat Committee. The Khilafat Committee held its first session in Lucknow in 1919 and made Seth Chotani of Bombay its President. In the year 1920, Delhi session of Khilafat Committee was addressed by the Shankaracharya of Puri and he extended the support of the Hindus. In the same session, Gandhi was made the President of the Khilafat Committee. Thus, the non-cooperation movement was organised for meaningful constitutional reforms, to punish the guilty in Punjab excesses and for protecting the Khilafat. Gandhi's proposal for the movement was accepted by the Congress working committee which met under Lala Lajpat Rai in Calcutta. The Nagpur session in 1920, presided over by Veeraraghvachari, endorsed the resolution and made Gandhi the sole leader of the movement. Course of Non-Cooperative Movement: Gandhi drafted the programme of the movement with the slogans 'Swadeshi', 'Satyagraha', Total boycott' and No Tax Campaigns (Passive resistance). Charkhas became the symbol of the Movernent. No-tax campaigns were organised in the Madras Presidency at Chirala - Perala by D.Gopala Krishnaiah and at Pedanandipadu by P.Veeraiah Chaudhuri. Under the idea of 'Swadeshi', Jamia Milia Islamia was founded in Delhi by the Ali brothers. To discourage the movement, the British announced the goodwill mission of Price of Wales. The anti non - cooperation movement was also stated by Thakur Singh with the support of the British. When the NCM was going on, Moplahs and Muslim agricultural labourers in the Malabar Coast of Kerala revolted against the exploitation of Brahmin landlords called Nambudries (Zenmis). An agrarian crisis became a communal movement leading to movement. Riots also started in Meerut, Lucknow, Kanpur between Hindus and Muslims. Differences also started between Gandhi and Ali brothers on iniensification of the movement. On February 5, 1922, the Chauri - Chaura incident took place in Gorakhpur district of UP. 22 police constables were burnt alive. Following this act of violence on the part of the Indians, on Feb 11, Gandhi called off the movement. Results of NCM: The movement failed to achieve its objectives. The Hunter Committee was appointed to inquire into the excesses of Dyer. The Khilafat was abolished by the people of Turkey under Mustafa Kamal Pasha. No constitutional reforms were introduced. The effects of the movement were: The failure created permanent gulf between Hindus and Muslims. It was the last movement in the struggle where Hindu - Muslim jointly resisted colonial domination. Within the Congress differences had arisen. Deshbandu C.R.Das, the President of the Gaya session in 1922 criticised Gandhi's method of struggle and suggested contesting the 1923 elections under Montague - Chelmford reforms. The followers of C.R.Das, Motilal Nehru and Vittalbhai Patel were called the 'pro - changers'. They advocated 'Council Entry'. The 'no- www.laex.in -32- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History changers' who supported Gandhi and opposed council entry were Subhas Chandra Bose, Rajendra Prasad, Jawaharlal Nehru and Vallabai Patel. The pro-changers founded the Congress - Khilafat Swaraj Party under C.R.Das and contested the elections. The Swaraj Party emerged as the largest party in central legislative assembly and Motilal Nehru became the first Indian opposition leader. Vittalbhai Patel became the first Indian elected Speaker. C.R.Das became the first elected Chairman of Calcutta Municipal Corporation. However, with the sudden death of C.R.Das in 1925, the Swaraj Party got completely merged with Congress. In 1924, Alexander Muddyman Committee was appointed to review the Dyarchy which had ben introduced under the Reforms in 1919. In 1924, Gandhi presided over the Belgaum session- The only session where Gandhi acted as the President. At the instance of Gandhi, the membership fee of the Congress was fixed at 25p or 4 annas in the Belgaum session. In 1925, All India Hindu Mahasabha decalred officially its formation (actually founded in 1915 by M.M.Malivya and Manooji). In 1925, the CPI (Communist Party of India) declared its formation officially in its Kanpur session (actually founded in 1920 by M.N.Roy at Tashkent). In 1972, Harcourt Butler committee was formed to study and promote the relationship between British India and Princely States. In 1927, P.M. Ramsay Mac Donald constituted Simon Commission under ti Chairmanship of Sir John Simon with 7 members who were all English, to study the implementation of 1919 reforms. All the political parties except Justice Party and the Depressed Class Federation of Dr.B.R. Ambedkar decided to boycott the commission. Madhav Makgaon was the first to organise 'Simon Go Back' movement in Bombay. In Madras, T.Prakasam called 'Andhra Kesari' led the anti-Simon movement. In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai organised a mammoth rally against the commission. He was lathicharged by Saunders and he died of injuries in December 1928. Motilal Nehru Committee (June, 1928): The secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead challenged the political parties of India to draft a model constitution which would be acceptable to all. The All Party Conference was held in Delhi under the Chairmanship of Z.A.Ansari. Motilal Nehru was appointed the Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The Recommendations of the Committee Were: A federal government at the centre with British India and Princely States. Abolition of Dyarchy. Elected governments in provinces with complete autonomy. Civil liberties. The most controversial part of the Report was that it denied separate communal electorates to the Muslims. Instead it provided for a reservation of 1/3 rd of seats in the general electorate to the Muslims. Jinnah rejected the report and came out with his 14 point formula suggesting www.laex.in -33- www.civilsprep.com  Ancient History measures on minority rights. However, Congress served an ultimatum fixing December 1929 as deadline for the implementation of the report. In December 1929, the Deepavali Declaration was made by Viceroy Irwin. It invited all the political parties to take part in the Round Table Conferences to be held in London on the recommendations of the Simon Commission. In December 1929, the historic Lahore Session was held and presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. Poorna Swaraj was declared as the highest goal of Congress. The tri colour flag prepared by P.Venkaiah was hoisted for the first time and it was decided to celebrate January 26 of every year as Independence Day. In February 1930, Gandhi met Irwin with his 11 demands that included the right to make salt; 50% reduction in- rent (land tax), export duties, military expenditure and a better exchange ratio between sterling and Indian Rupee. The demands were rejected. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1932): On March 12, 1930, Gandhi started his Dandi March from the Sabarmati Ashram, followed by 78 followers. A distance of 365 km was covered by Gandhi in 25 days. Sarojini Naidu represented the women wing. On April 6, 1930, Gandhi broke the salt law at Dandi. In the Madras Presidency, Rajaji organised the Salt Marches from Trichy to Tindivanam. B.Gopal Reddy organised the famous Mypadu Salt Satyagraha. In Bombay Presidency, Sarojini Naidu and Vittalbhai Patel led the salt marches at Padala and Darshana. In NWFP, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) organised the movement with his followers cal