Chapter 4 History Writers PDF

Chapter 4 The Great Writers and Poets of Europe Europe has produced many great writers, people who left a mark on culture and whose works are still being read. In the following chapter we will be briefly discussing notable writers and poets of Europe is in chronological order. The great British...

Chapter 4 The Great Writers and Poets of Europe Europe has produced many great writers, people who left a mark on culture and whose works are still being read. In the following chapter we will be briefly discussing notable writers and poets of Europe is in chronological order. The great British writers were discussed in other courses therefore they will not include herewith. The earliest traces of a literary great work can be traced back to the Ancient Greek civilization where works of writers and poets like Homer and Sophocles carried that heritage to scholastic studies that were based on them in later centuries. Later with the rise of the Roman Empire came Virgil and later the Italian Dante Alighieri. Other writers from the Medieval to the Enlightenment and through the Romantic era are discussed till the 20th century writers. Modern writers up till the present times still carry this heritage, and their writings manifest of religious political and methodological ideas are echoed in novels, poetry, etc. 1\. Homer c. 8th/9th Century BCE The Greek blind poet Homer is credited with writing the Iliad and Odyssey, two epic poems that are considered foundational classics of Greek literature. He is often considered as one of history\'s finest and most important authors. The Iliad and Odyssey are two of the most important epic poems in western history, both having a profound effect on the development of written arts and culture. Traditionally these poems are ascribed to Homer, although he may simply have written and shaped works which had been in the oral memory of his ancestors. That said, by writing them down in the manner he did, Homer earned a place as one of Europe's greatest poets. Of the man, we know little. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek kingdoms. According to classical texts, the war began when the Trojan prince Paris kidnapped (or started a relationship) 37 Queen Helen of Sparta. Menelaus, Helen\'s betrayed husband, persuaded his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, to lead an expedition to find her. Agamemnon was accompanied by a fleet of over a thousand ships from all around the Hellenic realm, as well as the Greek heroes Achilles, Odysseus, Nestor, and Ajax. They sailed the Aegean Sea to Asia Minor, where they laid siege to Troy and demanded Priam, the Trojan ruler, return Helen. The siege lasted more than ten years, punctuated by fights and conflicts that included the legendary deaths of the Trojan prince Hector and the near-invincible Achilles. The Greek soldiers left from their camp the next morning, leaving a giant wooden horse outside the gates of Troy. The Trojans brought the unusual gift into the city after considerable deliberation (and ignoring Priam\'s daughter Cassandra\'s warnings). When night fell, a party of Greek warriors commanded by Odysseus stepped out of the horse and attacked Troy from within. The Greek heroes slowly returned home after the Trojan defeat. Odysseus\' long and often-interrupted journey home to Ithaca, as recorded in the \"Odyssey,\" took ten years. Helen returned to Sparta to rule alongside Menelaus after her two Trojan husbands were dead in the war. Some legends claim she was exiled to the island of Rhodes after his death, where she was hanged by an angry war widow. Sophocles 496 -- 406 BCE Sophocles, born around 496 BCE in Colonus, near Athens, was a prominent playwright whose works significantly influenced the development of drama. He was a well-educated individual from a wealthy family and held various roles in Athenian society, including that of a military commander. Throughout his lifetime, he wrote over 120 plays, of which only seven have survived in full, with Oedipus Rex being the most celebrated. Sophocles won numerous awards at the Dionysian festival, reportedly triumphing more than 20 times, which underscores his status as one of the greatest playwrights of ancient Greece. His work has had a profound impact on literature and psychology, notably inspiring Sigmund Freud\'s concept of the Oedipus complex. Summary of Oedipus Rex Oedipus Rex, written around 429 BCE, is a tragedy that explores themes of fate, free will, and tragic flaws. The play begins with the city of Thebes suffering from a devastating plague. Oedipus, the king who previously saved the city from the Sphinx by solving its riddle, vows to find the cause of this new calamity. He 38 sends his brother-in-law Creon to consult the oracle at Delphi. Upon Creon\'s return, he reveals that the plague is a punishment for harboring the murderer of Laius, the former king.Determined to uncover the truth, Oedipus summons Tiresias, a blind prophet. Initially reluctant to speak, Tiresias eventually accuses Oedipus himself of being Laius\'s killer. In disbelief and anger, Oedipus dismisses Tiresias\'s claims and accuses him of conspiracy. However, as the investigation unfolds, Oedipus learns that he had unwittingly fulfilled a prophecy foretold at his birth: he had killed his father Laius at a crossroads and married his mother Jocasta.As the truth emerges, Jocasta hangs herself in despair upon realizing their relationship. In a fit of grief and horror at his actions, Oedipus blinds himself using her hairpins and begs Creon to care for his daughters before exiling himself from Thebes. The play concludes with a somber reflection on fate and human suffering as the chorus laments that no one can escape their destiny. Importance in the History of Drama Oedipus Rex is often regarded as one of the greatest achievements in Greek tragedy and has had a lasting influence on Western literature and drama. Its exploration of complex themes such as fate versus free will resonates deeply with audiences and has prompted extensive analysis over centuries. The play illustrates the concept of excessive pride, which is central to many tragic narratives; Oedipus\'s downfall stems from his inability to heed warnings about seeking knowledge that he ultimately cannot bear. The structure of Oedipus Rex set a standard for dramatic storytelling through its use of dramatic irony---where the audience knows more than the characters---which heightens emotional engagement. This technique has been emulated by countless playwrights throughout history. Furthermore, Sophocles\' innovative use of character development and dialogue paved the way for more nuanced portrayals in theater. The psychological dimensions introduced in Oedipus Rex, particularly regarding identity and self-discovery, have also made it relevant in modern discussions about human behavior and motivation. Freud\'s concept of the Oedipus complex illustrates how deeply ingrained these themes are in human psychology. In summary, Oedipus Rex not only exemplifies Sophocles\' mastery as a playwright but also marks a pivotal moment in the evolution of drama. Its enduring themes continue to resonate with audiences today, reinforcing its status as a cornerstone of literary history and psychological inquiry. Sophocles\' contributions have shaped not just theater but also our understanding of human nature itself. 2. Aristophanes c. 450 -- c. 388 BCE A Greek Athenian citizen who wrote during the era of the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes' work constitutes the greatest surviving body of ancient Greek comedies from one person. Still performed today, his most famous piece is probably Lysistrata. 3\. Virgil 70 -- 18 BCE Virgil is celebrated as one of the greatest poets of ancient Rome, and his legacy has endured through the centuries. His most renowned work, the Aeneid, is an epic poem that not only tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero and the founder of Rome, but also serves as a cornerstone of Roman cultural identity. Written between 29 and 19 BC during the reign of Augustus, the Aeneid consists of 12 books and approximately 9,896 lines, crafted in dactylic hexameter. This monumental work draws heavily from earlier Greek epics, particularly Homer\'s Iliad and Odyssey, yet it establishes a distinctly Roman narrative that intertwines themes of fate, duty, and divine intervention. The Aeneid holds significant importance not only as a literary masterpiece but also as a foundational text in the history of drama and epic storytelling. By crafting a narrative that blends personal struggle with national destiny, Virgil established a template for future epics and dramas that explore themes of heroism, sacrifice, and divine influence over human affairs. The interplay between fate and free will in Aeneas\'s journey resonates deeply within Western literature. Moreover, Virgil\'s influence extends far beyond his own time; his works were integral to Roman education and were studied by generations of students. Aeneid inspired countless writers throughout history, including Dante Alighieri, who featured Virgil as a guide in his own epic work, The Divine Comedy. This connection underscores Virgil\'s role as a bridge between classical antiquity and later literary traditions. Dante Alighieri 1265 -- 1321 Dante Alighieri, a prominent writer, philosopher, and political thinker, crafted his most renowned work, The Divine Comedy, during a turbulent period of exile from his beloved Florence, Italy. This exile was a consequence of his involvement in the political strife of the time. The Divine Comedy is not only a 40 cornerstone of Italian literature but also a profound exploration of the human soul\'s journey towards God. Its impact on cultural depictions of the afterlife and its role in establishing the Italian language as a literary medium cannot be overstated. The Divine Comedy is an epic poem divided into three distinct parts: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. Each section consists of thirty-three cantos, reflecting the medieval theological understanding of the afterlife. The narrative begins with Dante lost in a dark forest, symbolizing confusion and sin. He is guided by the Roman poet Virgil, who represents human reason and wisdom. Together, they embark on a journey through the three realms of the afterlife. They travel through nine celestial spheres, each representing different virtues and levels of bliss. The culmination of this journey leads to a vision of God---a moment that embodies ultimate enlightenment and divine love. The poem concludes with Dante\'s realization that true understanding transcends human comprehension. The Divine Comedy holds immense significance in the history of drama and literature for several reasons. Firstly, it provides an allegorical framework for understanding human existence and morality, illustrating the consequences of one\'s actions in life. This theme resonates deeply within dramatic literature, influencing countless playwrights and poets who followed. Moreover, Dante\'s decision to write in Italian rather than Latin marked a pivotal shift in literary tradition. By doing so, he not only made literature accessible to a broader audience but also helped establish the Tuscan dialect as the standardized Italian language. This choice laid the groundwork for future Italian writers and contributed to the rise of vernacular literature across Europe. The poem\'s imaginative portrayal of the afterlife has shaped popular depictions of hell and heaven throughout history. Its vivid imagery and complex characterizations have inspired adaptations in various forms of art, including theater, visual arts, and modern literature. The Divine Comedy is more than just a literary masterpiece; it is a profound exploration of faith, morality, and redemption that continues to resonate with audiences today. Its influence on drama and literature underscores its importance as a foundational text that captures the complexities of human experience within a structured moral framework. 1. Miguel de Cervantes 1547 -- 1616 Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) is one of the most significant figures in Spanish literature, renowned for his novel Don Quixote. This work is often hailed as the first modern novel and stands as a monumental achievement in world literature. Cervantes\' life was marked by adversity; he served as a soldier and endured years of captivity as a slave until his family managed to secure his release. Later, he worked in various civil service roles, but financial struggles persisted throughout his life. Despite these challenges, Cervantes made substantial contributions across genres, including novels, plays, poems, and short stories, ultimately culminating in the creation of Don Quixote. Don Quixote follows the adventures of Alonso Quijano, a middle-aged gentleman from La Mancha who becomes enamored with chivalric romances. Inspired by these tales, he resolves to become a knight-errant and adopts the name Don Quixote. He dons an old suit of armor and rides his feeble horse, Rocinante, setting off on a quest to revive chivalry and protect the helpless. Accompanied by his loyal squire, Sancho Panza, Don Quixote embarks on various misadventures, mistaking windmills for giants and inns for castles. His delusions lead him into humorous yet tragic situations as he confronts the realities of a world that has moved beyond the ideals he cherishes. Throughout the narrative, themes of illusion versus reality are explored. Don Quixote\'s unwavering belief in his noble purpose ultimately leads to his downfall; after being defeated by the Knight of the White Moon, he is forced to abandon his knightly pursuits. In the end, he renounces chivalry as foolishness and dies disillusioned. Don Quixote holds a pivotal place in literary history, influencing not only novels but also drama and theater. Its rich characterizations and complex narrative structure paved the way for modern storytelling techniques. The interplay between reality and illusion in Cervantes\' work resonates with later playwrights and authors, establishing a foundation for character-driven narratives that explore human psychology. The novel\'s blend of humor and tragedy has inspired countless adaptations in theater, film, and literature, solidifying its legacy as a cornerstone of Western literary tradition. Cervantes\' exploration of themes such as identity, madness, and social critique continues to resonate with audiences today, marking Don Quixote as an enduring masterpiece that transcends time and genre. 1\. Voltaire 1694 - 1778 42 Voltaire, the pseudonym of François-Marie Arouet, was a prominent figure of the French Enlightenment, renowned for his sharp wit and incisive critiques of societal norms, particularly those surrounding religion and governance. He championed the ideals of freedom of speech and religion, advocating for the separation of church and state. His literary contributions were diverse, encompassing satire, historical narratives, and philosophical essays, which collectively earned him significant acclaim during his lifetime. Among his most celebrated works is Candide, a novella that not only exemplifies Enlightenment thought but also serves as a critical commentary on optimism and human suffering. Candide follows the misadventures of its titular character, a naive young man raised in an idyllic setting under the optimistic tutelage of Professor Pangloss. Candide\'s sheltered existence is shattered when he is expelled from the baron's castle after being caught with Cunégonde, the baron's daughter. This expulsion thrusts him into a harsh world filled with war, natural disasters, and human cruelty. Throughout his journey across Europe and South America, Candide encounters a series of problems that challenge Pangloss\'s assertion that \"all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds.\" As Candide sees atrocities such as war, slavery, and natural disasters---including the devastating Lisbon earthquake---his faith in optimism starts to change. Ultimately, after enduring numerous hardships, he concludes that true happiness lies not in philosophical speculation but in practical engagement with life: \"We must cultivate our garden.\" This realization underscores Voltaire\'s argument against blind optimism and highlights the necessity of addressing real-world issues. Candide holds a significant place in the history of drama and literature due to its pioneering use of satire to critique philosophical ideologies. Voltaire\'s work challenges the prevailing optimism of his time, particularly that espoused by Leibniz. By employing humor and irony, he exposes the absurdity of philosophical doctrines that ignore human suffering. The novella\'s themes resonate with audiences today, reflecting ongoing debates about optimism versus realism in facing life\'s challenges. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 --1832) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, born on August 28, 1749, in Frankfurt, Germany, is widely regarded as one of the most significant figures in German literature and a profound influence on Western thought. His extensive career encompassed various roles, including poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. Goethe\'s literary contributions are diverse and include plays, poetry, novels, and aesthetic criticism, alongside scientific treatises on topics such as botany and color theory. One of Goethe\'s most notable works is \"The 43 Sorrows of Young Werther,\" published in 1774. This novel tells the story of Werther, a young artist who becomes infatuated with Lotte, a woman engaged to another man. The narrative captures Werther\'s intense emotions as he grapples with love and despair, ultimately leading to his tragic end. The book resonated deeply with readers across Europe and sparked what became known as \"Werther Fever,\" where young men emulated the protagonist\'s style and demeanor. This phenomenon not only catapulted Goethe to fame but also established him as a key figure in the Sturm und Drang literary movement, which emphasized strong emotional expression over rationality. Goethe\'s impact on literature extends beyond his own works; he played a crucial role in shaping the cultural landscape of his time. After joining the Weimar court in 1775, he became an integral part of a vibrant intellectual community that fostered artistic collaboration. His partnership with fellow writer Friedrich Schiller transformed the Weimar Theatre into a national treasure and solidified their legacies as central figures in German literature. Goethe\'s exploration of individualism and emotional depth in \"Werther\" marked a significant evolution in drama and literature. He challenged societal norms and articulated the complexities of human experience, paving the way for future literary movements. His ability to express the struggles of existence and the quest for identity makes him an enduring figure in literary history. Today, Goethe\'s works continue to be celebrated for their profound insights into the human condition and their lasting influence on literature and philosophy. Victor Hugo 1802 -- 1885 Victor Hugo, a prominent 19th-century French author, is best known for his monumental novel Les Misérables, published in 1862. This work has left an indelible mark on literature and drama, reflecting the social and political issues of its time. Hugo is celebrated in France not only as a masterful poet but also as a key figure of the Romantic movement and a symbol of French republicanism. His political beliefs evolved throughout his life; initially a royalist, he later became an ardent supporter of republican ideals, particularly during his exile from France under Napoleon III. Les Misérables is a profound exploration of human suffering, love, and redemption set against the backdrop of early 19th-century France. The narrative centers on Jean Valjean, a man who endures immense hardship after serving 19 years in prison for stealing a loaf of bread to feed his sister\'s children. His journey begins when he is released and encounters Bishop Myriel, who shows him unexpected kindness. This pivotal moment inspires Valjean to seek redemption and change his life. However, he is relentlessly pursued by Inspector Javert, who embodies the unforgiving nature of the law. 44 The climax occurs during the June Rebellion of 1832, where Valjean\'s courage and compassion shine as he risks everything to save Marius, Cosette's love.The significance of Les Misérables extends beyond its narrative; it serves as a powerful critique of societal injustices such as poverty, child exploitation, and the failings of the legal system. Hugo's work has influenced countless adaptations in theater and film, making it a cornerstone of dramatic literature. Its themes resonate with audiences today, highlighting the enduring struggle for justice and compassion in society. Thus, Les Misérables remains not only a literary masterpiece but also an essential commentary on human rights and dignity throughout history. Fyodor Dostoyevsky 1821 -- 1881 Fyodor Dostoevsky, a prominent Russian author, is renowned for his profound exploration of philosophical and religious themes, particularly in the context of 19th-century Russia\'s tumultuous political and social landscape. His literary includes notable works such as Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), Demons (1872), and his final masterpiece, The Brothers Karamazov (1880). Dostoevsky\'s contributions to literature are vast, comprising 12 novels, four novellas, 16 short stories, and various essays. His works are often hailed as masterpieces, positioning him among the greatest authors in literary history. The Brothers Karamazov encapsulates the essence of Dostoevsky's literary genius. The narrative revolves around the Karamazov family, particularly the three brothers: Dmitri, Ivan, and Alyosha. Their father, Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov, is a morally corrupt man whose relationships with his sons are fraught with conflict. The novel unfolds as a murder mystery centered on Fyodor\'s death, with Dmitri accused of the crime. However, the story transcends mere plot; it delves into complex themes of morality, faith, and existential despair. Each brother embodies distinct philosophical perspectives: Dmitri represents hedonism, Ivan embodies nihilism, and Alyosha reflects Christian existentialism. This interplay of ideologies creates a rich tapestry that explores the human condition and moral dilemmas. Noteworthy passages include Ivan\'s parable \"The Grand Inquisitor,\" which critiques religious authority and questions divine justice. The significance of The Brothers Karamazov extends beyond its narrative; it is a cornerstone in the history of drama and literature. Dostoevsky's exploration of psychological depth and moral ambiguity has influenced countless writers and thinkers. His ability to weave intricate character studies with profound philosophical inquiries has left an indelible mark on literature. The novel's impact 45 resonates through its examination of themes such as free will, guilt, and redemption, making it a timeless classic that continues to inspire discussions on ethics and spirituality in contemporary society. Leo Tolstoy 1828 -- 1910 Born to wealthy aristocratic parents who died while he was still young, Tolstoy began his career in writing before serving in the Crimean War. After he this turned to a mixture of teaching and writing, creating what have been labeled two of the great novels in literature: War and Peace, set during the Napoleonic Wars and Anna Karenina. He has been considered a master of human observation, realist fiction and was well-known throughout his life for his moralistic views and opinions. 1\. Henrik Ibsen (1828 -- 1906) Henrik Johan Ibsen was a Norwegian writer and theatre director who lived from 1828 to 1906. Ibsen is generally referred to as \"the father of realism\" and one of the most prominent playwrights of his time, as one of the creators of modernism in theatre. After Shakespeare, Ibsen is the most often produced dramatist in the world, and A Doll\'s House was the most widely performed play in 2006. His major works include Brand, Peer Gynt, and An Enemy of the People, Emperor and Galilean, A Doll\'s House, Hedda Gabler, Ghosts, The Wild Duck, When We Dead Awaken. Ibsen grew as a person and an artist in a tumultuous relationship with Danish theatre and literature.\" The societal issues that Ibsen was concerned with belonged unmistakably to the nineteenth century. The psychological concerns that he investigated are the qualities of his literature that appeal the most to modern readers. The social themes he addressed so forcefully in his day, as well as the late-Victorian middle-class setting of his plays, have become antiquated. The fact that they nevertheless have a compelling power whether read or produced attests to his continuing quality as a thinker and dramatist. 2\. Franz Kafka (1883--1924) Kafka was born into a middle-class German-speaking Jewish family in Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, today the capital of the Czech Republic. Kafka wrote in German and his 46 works have been translated into numerous languages. Kafka is considered one of the most influential writers ever. His classic European literature style tackles many of the diseases of the mind and he embraced philosophies such as existentialism. He was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer who is widely considered one of the most important personalities in twentieth-century literature. His work is a mix of realism and fantastical aspects. It usually contains isolated characters in odd or surreal situations, as well as socio-bureaucratic powers that are beyond comprehension. It\'s been suggested that it\'s about alienation, existential anguish, guilt, and absurdity. His best-known works are The Metamorphosis a short tale, and the novels The Trial and The Castle. The term \"Kafkaesque\" has been coined to characterize events similar to those depicted in his works.