McDonaldization: Policies of Fast Food Organizations

**McDonaldization** -- policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, *Principles of efficiency, calculability,* 251 *predictability, uniformity, and control* -- These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting ev...

**McDonaldization** -- policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, *Principles of efficiency, calculability,* 251 *predictability, uniformity, and control* -- These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment, § ex. movie theatres all look and work similarly, with same concession stands look same, carry same brands and same popular movies, with same seating arrangements, look the same, and \#of screens is the same. All ticket systems now the same (especially online). Same pre-show entertainment. § Not necessarily a bad thing. Pervasive throughout society. Characteristics of an Ideal Bureaucracy  **Max Weber** (sociologist) studied structure of organizations*, 5 main characteristics of an* *ideal bureaucracy*, regardless of goal of organization (organization can be for business, charity, etc.) All should show these characteristics: o **Division of labour** -- people are trained to do specific tasks. § Pro -- people are better at tasks, and increased efficiency. § Con -- increase alienation in workers, separating them from other works (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity. Also can lead to **trained incapacity**, where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture. § Ex. Administrators don't teach classes at university and professors are not responsible for building maintenance. o **Hierarchy of organization** -- each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. § Pro -- clarify who's in command § Con -- deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals allows them to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members). o **Written rules and regulations** § Pro -- clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) § Con -- stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. **Goal displacement** (rules become more important than goals of organization) o **Impersonality** -- how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner § Pro - equal treatment § Con -- alienation, discourage loyalty to the group 252 o **Employment based on technical qualifications** --hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries § Pro -- decrease discrimination § Con -- decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to **Peter Principle**, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting *promoted until they reach level of incompetence* (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further). xSocial Support See above Self-Presentation and Interacting With Others xCharles Cooley -- Looking Class self  See above x George Herbert Mead -- The I and the Me  See above xThree Components of Emotion and Universal Emotions  See above Biological explanations of social behavior in animals Animal Behavior: Foraging  One of most important animal behaviors is **Foraging** - the search for food in animal's environment. Can't survive or reproduce without it.  Cost-benefit analysis associated with foraging -- Cost: going out to get food can take up time and energy. Benefit: it survives. Goal is to get highest energy yield while expending least amount of energy. o Includes looking for food, and stalking prey.  2 main foraging strategies -- solitary foraging and group foraging o 1) **Solitary foraging** -- animal looks for food by itself. Ex. Tigers do this. 253 o 2) **group foraging** - animals look for food in groups. Hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. Can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce. Benefit of this strategy is that animals can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit. ex. Lions do this.  Foraging behavior is driven strongly by **genetics**, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage. This teaches them how to hunt and what kinds of things they should be hunting. Animal Communication  Humans communicate with each other through **language** (how we communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings and how we respond to thoughts/feelings of others), **non-verbal cues** (can tell if someone is happy/sad, anxious/angry by smile, frown, etc)., and **visual cues** (ex. painting rooms pink vs. black)  Other animals have ways of communicating as well, not with language but with many non-verbal cues and visual cues, and other types of cues not used by humans.  **Who** are animals communicating with? o Members of same species o Members of other species. Ex. Some frogs use bright colors to signal they are toxic so communicate with other animals that they should not eat them, cat communicates with a human when they are hungry o **Auto-communication** -- can give information to themselves. Ex. bats and echolocation and this allows them to gain information about the environment  **What** are they trying to communicate? What is the main function of animal communication? o Mating rituals, to attract opposite sex. Ex. Some animals use bright colors, complicated dances, and specific verbal calls. o To establish/defend territory. Tell other animals to back off. Ex. Birds get territorial when they lay eggs. o To convey information about food location o Alarm calls, to warn others about predators o Signal dominance and submission. Ex. Dogs have a stance to indicate who came out on top after a fight.  Animals communicate with each other and humans.  BUT, a WARNING. Watch about for **anthropomorphism** -- attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals. ex. pet sleeping with you at night and you can assume that they love you but maybe they are just there because of your body heat. Types of Animal Communication  Animals can communicate with each other through sound, chemical signals, somatosensation, and visual cues. 254  **Sound** -- Ex. Dogs can bark, birds can sing. Sound can convey a lot of information event though they do not have language, ex. mating calls, warning'/alarm sounds, etc. Not always produced by mouth of an animal (ex. Crickets rub legs together to attract mate, rattlesnake gives a warning signal via shake of his tail). Sound as communication is useful because it's fast, can reach many members at once, but not very private and exposes the animal's location  **Chemical signals/Olfactory Signals** -- Gain info from the environment through smells. They can so release scents for communication called **pheromones** (can be for mating, most often) or to guide other members to food (ants use this method). Can detect predators using smell, or presence of other animals. Chemical signals tends to be a lot slower than sound, but a lot longer lasting. But because of this long lasting effect, chemical signals are considered "noisy" -- a lot of chemical signals in a given area.  **Somatosensory communication** -- Communicate through touch and movement. Ex. mating dances. Movement can also convey food location (bees), pair/group bonding (ex. birds cuddle/prune mates), body language (facial expression/body language for emotion -- ex. Dogs can show teeth when threatened, perk up ears if alarmed). Also *seismic* *communication* (ex. movement of bug in spider's web signals to spider to find it), *electro-communication* (fish). o Signals can be detected by predators as a way to find food.  **Visual cues** -- Overlap between visual cues and somatosensory communication. o *Visual cues to find a mate* (ex. peacock extends feathers to attract a peahen), o *Visual communication through color* (ex. A beak color on a certain bird allows it to communicate to young and assist in feeding young...frogs use color to signal they are toxic to other animals) o *Mimicry* (ex. monarch butterflies are poisonous to birds and colored in a specific way, but viceroy butterflies that are not poisonous to birds use same pattern/colors (they mimic) the monarch butterfly and this provides the butterfly lots of protection). o *Camouflage* (visual cues used to NOT communicate...ex. Frogs use this and shade its skin like leaves). o More types: *bioluminescent communication* (ex. fireflies glow to attract mate), *gaze following* and *social cues* (ex. look where some1 else is looking...silent way to signal location of food or predator). o More examples that were not included in video. Mating Behavior and Inclusive Fitness  Mating is the pairing of opposite sex organisms for purpose of reproduction and propagation of genetic material. Includes act of mating and the other behaviours associated with it. Also events that occur after mating, like nest building and feeding the young. o Ex. The Superb Bird of Paradise does a complicated dance.  Mating strategies when searching for a mate 255 o 1) **Random mating**- all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: hardy Weinberg equilibrium assumes this} o 2) **Assortative Mating** -- Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. § Can result in inbreeding which is a problem that occurs if animals too genetically similar mate. Tends can be harmful to species overall. Increase likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring. o 3) **Dis-assortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating)** -- opposite of assortative mating -- situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.  Which strategy is best? Scientists think assortative mating, because despite dangers of inbreeding, help to increase inclusive fitness of an organism. o **Inclusive fitness** -- concerns the \# of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale -- evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves. § This inclusive fitness concept can solve problems with evolution which states that animals (including humans) can be predisposed to act selfishly. But people are kind to others/help others. We are helpful/altruistic of those who are similar to us! Evolutionary Game Theory  Introduction to Game theory: usually talked about in reference to decision making, but can also use it for evolution and animal behavior. Game theory -- social science/economics typically but also can explain everyday behavior. Game theory tries to predict behaviors we would expect to see when an individuals are playing a game. It looks at individual strategy and looks at the behaviors of what other animals will do. o Ex; effect of a decision effect not just an individual but the overall group.  **Evolutionary game theory** tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. o Reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory. § Reproduction important to game theory because it can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others § Environment -- how organism fits in with social and physical environment. Work with other organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators. \[Fitness also depends on behavior of group\] 256 o Predicts the **availability of resources** and **social behavior** (important for who they mate with). Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players. o A important *difference* between evolutionary game theory and general game theory: § Game theory involves intention, where participants reasoning about behaviours of others. § Evolutionary game theory different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players. o Evolutionary game theory helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population. Evolutionary game theory predicts the appearance of (helps us see) evolutionary stable strategies (behaviours that persist in population once present). § Ex. Altruism -- 2 groups of monkeys, one selfish and one not. Selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators. Non-selfish group alerts others and leads to overall success of group over time. Making a call at their own expense is sometimes good (the one who makes the call might not survive, but those similar to it can be helped...this is better strategy for the population).  Altruism increases fitness of group! Discrimination xDiscrimination \-- Individual vs institutional See above xPrejudice and discrimination Based on Race, Ethnicity, Power, Social Class, and Prestige See above xStereotypes, Stereotype Threat, and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy See above 257 Society and Culture Social Structures Macrosociology vs. Microsociology  2 different analysis of sociology to study societies. Need a place to start or it'll be overwhelming -- individual people, different groups, and communities/cultures/subcultures in a population.  **Macrosociology** -- large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities, and statistical data (as long as you're careful about not making wrong interpretations). o Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economy o **Functionalism** comes from macrosociology -- looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning. o **Conflict theory** is also a macro-perspective -- the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved.  **Microsociology** -- face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of the society, look at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society. Ex. doctor-patient interactions, or family dynamics. o **Symbolic interactionism** - social theory that's a micro-perspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives. Social Institutions  Institutions are essential parts of a society, ex. police stations, hospitals, businesses, Walmart, trader joes. Impose structure on how individuals behave. Guide what we do. o Institution can create rules that impact all of society and guide what we do. Individuals are reliant on institution and community. o They don't need any 1 individual, just need many of them, and each individual is very replaceable. Institutions are created by individuals but continue even after an individual is gone. Whereas without institution major changes can occur to individual. Imbalance in power. o A form for filling the need. Meet the need of a society. Family institution = people year after year. Medicine = fill the need of health. Institution = for advancement of society.  Two views of institutions 258 o Conservative View: institutions are natural by-products of human nature. o Progressive View: institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful. Ex. Businesses  We think of institutions as a business/corporation, sociologists think of social structures, governments, families, hospitals, schools, laws, religion, businesses, etc. All continue without any 1 individual. Social Institutions -- ex. Education, Family, Religion  Education, Family, Religion -- each of these institutions play a fundamental role in creating and supporting society, and each shape the individual in that society.  **Education** -- more than going to school, but there's a: o **Hidden curriculum:** we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers. We internalize social inequalities, when boys and girls are treated differently by their teachers. o Expectation of teachers affects how students learn. Teachers tend to get what they expect from their students. Expectations are met. o Teachers put students in categorizations with different expectations, but what if categorization is wrong? The student might then just meet the teacher's expectations rather than exceeding them and reaching their true potential. Sometimes limiting factor comes from outside the classroom. o Sometimes limiting factor comes from outside classroom. Schools experience educational **segregation** and stratification, because we fund schools through property taxes, which is why different districts are funded differently. Residential segregation of education.  **Family** -- defined by many forms of kinship, including marriage, blood, or adoption. Small nuclear family is more emphasized in the US. o Different family values go with different social values of family and economy, § ex. rural families were production based, so large families. § Urban families are consumption based, so large family means more strained on resources. Urbanization: changes in expectations on family roles and child care. § Family can be a married couple, generation skips, single parents, step family, gay couples, no one uniform type. o **Marriage** -- new families usually begin via marriage. Marriage is when people join together. In the US, people can experience multiple marriages and in the US we are Serial monogamous. Why **divorce** is more common, and creates tension (particularly when a parent remarries or during custody battles). § Some families contain violence. § ex. in **child abuse**: child is physically abused. § More common than child abuse: **abuses through neglect** -- children's basic needs aren't met**,** lack of supervision, poor nutrition, insufficient clothing. 259 § **Elder abuse** also occurs when family isn't ready for responsibility of taking care of elders and expense of nursing homes. (robberies, threats, neglect of elderly members) § **Spouse abuse** (can be physical or psychological like all abuse). Usually men are perpetrators, but men can also be victims. Economic issues are usually the cause. Controlling and limiting the support network of a victim. Makes it difficult for victim to get out of abuse. Women's shelters don't always get kids, while social stigma of men not getting abused keeps them quiet.  **Religion** -- religiosity: how religious a person is can range from private beliefs/spiritual routines, to institutionalized religion, celebrating certain holidays, reading a spiritual text, praying often etc. o **Ecclesia** -- dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran. o **Churches** are established religious bodies in a larger society. \[ex. Roman catholic church\] o **Sects** tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish o **Cults** are more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long. o **Religion has been effected by:** § **Modernization: more info available to public, less emphasis on religion.** o **Secularization** is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines. o **Fundamentalism** -- reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme. Social Institutions -- Government, Economy, Health and Medicine  **Government** -- we give government the power and authority to manage the country. o Some governments take into account will of people, like **democracy**. \[law making, choosing officials\] o Others rule autonomously like **dictatorships**, no consent of citizens. \[obedience to authority\] o **Communism** -- classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community. o **Monarchy** -- government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead.  **Economy** o **Capitalism** -- private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand. 260 o **Socialism** -- motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands.  Division of labour in government and economy is **functionalist** -- everyone is required to have responsibility in society. o We value certain labours differently. Ex. Garbage men (essential to society) not as valued as athletes (non-essential). We value jobs that require lots of specialization, rather than jobs essential in our society -- creates inequalities because not everyone has access to those valued professions, due to limited education/resources. These disparities in healthcare, medicine, and education.  **Healthcare and Medicine** -- medicine exists to keep people healthy. o **Medicalization** occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. Ex. mental health type issues (sadness/attention), and physical issues like birth. People are over diagnosed (depression/ADD). Sad =/= depressed and can't focus =/= ADD. Birth -- women and doctors plan C-section instead of natural births. § "concept of medicalization refers to the process in which something, usually a behavioral problem (such as, for example, alcoholism) becomes described and treated as a medical condition when it was not previously conceived in that way. o **Sick role** -- expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society. o **Delivery of healthcare** -- massive inequalities in terms of access. We take care of elderly through Medicaid and Medicare, and children through health child insurance. But people in between are left behind -- those who populate working force (when they get sick they can seriously effect society). Affordable Care Act is trying to fix this but too early to tell. Spend a lot of \$ on healthcare without desired outcomes, because we invest a lot more in helping people when they are sick instead of developing preventative medicine. o **Illness experience** -- process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Being ill can change a person's self-identity. Diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around the disease. Stigmas associated with certain diseases like mental illness or STDs that can affect how others perceive you.. How § People experience of disease varies too if they have access to resources like palliative care. o **Social epidemiology** looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health. Correlation between social advantages/disadvantages and distribution of health + disease. Social epidemiology focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease), Emphasized how social factors, such as class or race/ethnicity, affect 261 the distribution of disease and health. As a subfield of epidemiology has a significant overlap with sociological perspective on health and disease. Both types of research call attention to the ways in which health and disease are conditioned in a social context.