Psychology: Condense of Pages 91-97 PDF

*Why?* Once person gains leadership role they might be hesitant to give it up**. Also have skills that make them valuable. ** \-      **McDonaldization** -- fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and con...

*Why?* Once person gains leadership role they might be hesitant to give it up**. Also have skills that make them valuable. ** \-      **McDonaldization** -- fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control -- have dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment ·       Ex. Movie theatres all look and work similarly, with same brands and movies.          Characteristics of an **Ideal Bureaucracy**          **Max Weber** (sociologist) studied structure of organizations,           5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of goal of organization: \-      **Division of labour** -- people are trained to do [specific tasks].  ·       Pro -- people are better at tasks, and *increased efficiency*. ·       Con -- *increase alienation* in workers, separating them from other works, and they don't see work from beginning to end. Also trained incapacity, where workers are so specialized lose touch with overall picture.  \-      **Hierarchy of organization** -- each position is under [supervision of higher authority].  ·       Pro -- clarify who's in command ·       Con -- [deprive people] of voice in decision making, and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks. Also allows them to *hide mistakes*.  \-      **Written rules and regulations** ·       Pro -- [clear expectations], uniform performance, [equal treatment] of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization. ·       Con -- [stiffens creativity], and if too much structure discourages employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals)   \-      **Impersonality** -- how individuals and officials conduct activities in [unbiased manner] ·       Pro -  equal treatment ·       Con -- *alienation*, discourage loyalty to the group \-      **Employment based on technical qualifications** --hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favouritism ·       Pro -- decrease discrimination  ·       Con -- decrease ambition (only secure job and do nothing more). ***Peter Principle***, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence.          **Self-Presentation and Interacting With Others**                     Animal Communication          Humans communicate with each other through **language**, **non-verbal cues** (smile, frown, etc)., and **visual cues** (ex. painting rooms pink vs. black) \-      Other animals have ways of communicating as well, with many non-verbal cues and visual cues, and other cues not used by humans.          **Who** are animals communicating with?  \-      Members of [same species], or members of other species like humans.  \-      **Autocommunication** -- can give information to themselves. Ex. bats and echolocation           **What** are they trying to communicate? \-      ***Mating rituals***, to attract opposite sex  \-      To establish/defend territory \-      To ***convey information*** about food location  \-      ***Alarm calls***, to warn others about predators \-      ***Signal dominance*** and submission           Watch about for ***anthropomorphism*** -- attributing [human characteristics] to non-human animals, ex. pet sleeping with you at night.            Types of Animal Communication \-      **Sound** -- can convey a lot of information ·       Ex. mating calls, warning sounds, etc. Useful because it's fast, can reach many, but not very private and exposes the animal's location. \-      **Chemical signals** -- Gain info from the environment through smells. They can release scents called **pheromones**. Can detect predators using smell, or presence of other animals. Tends to be a lot slower than sound, but a lot longer lasting. But can be "noisy" -- a lot of chemical signals in a given area.  \-      **Somatosensory communication** -- Touch and movement.. Can also convey food location (bees), pair bonding (birds cuddle/prune mates), body language. Also seismic communication (ex. movement of bug in spider's web signals to spider to find it), electro-communication (fish) ·       Ex. mating dances \-      **Visual cues** -- to find a mate ·       Ex. color on birds. Mimicry, camouflage.           **Biological Explanations of Social Behavior in Animals**          Animal Behavior: **Foraging**          Foraging is the search for food in animal's environment. Can't survive or reproduce without it. \-      Cost-benefit analysis associated with it -- going out to get food can take up time and energy. Goal is to get highest yield while expending least amount of energy. ·       Includes looking for food, stalking prey.           2 main foraging strategies: \-       1) **solitary foraging** and 2) **group foraging** (can potentially lead to competition when food is scarce, but also means they can take down larger prey and can benefit everyone) ·       Foraging behavior is driven strongly by **genetics**, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young copy adults.            **[Mating Behavior and Inclusive Fitness]**          **Mating i**s the pairing of opposite sex organisms for purpose of [reproduction] and [propagation of genetic material].  \-      Includes act of mating and the behaviours associated with it. Also events that occur after mating, like nest building.  ·       Ex. The Superb Bird of Paradise does a complicated dance          Mating strategies \-      1) **Random mating**- all equally likely to mate with each other, not influenced by environment/heredity or social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. \-      2) **Assortative Mating** -- Non-random mating where individuals with certain personalities tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals with large animals. Problem is if animals too genetically similar mate (inbreeding), can be harmful to species overall. \-      3) **Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating)** -- opposite of assortative mating -- situation where individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.          Which is best? Scientists think assortative mating, because despite dangers of inbreeding, help to increase inclusive fitness of an organism. \-      **Inclusive fitness** is the [\# of offspring] an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about [fitness on a larger scale] -- evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves.           Evolutionary Game Theory          Game theory is talked about in reference to [decision making], but can also use it for evolution and animal behavior.  \-      **Evolutionary game theory** tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. ·       [Reproduction and environment] are central to evolutionary game theory. Helps us predict traits and evolutionary stable strategies/behaviours that persist in population once present. ·       Predicts the **availability of resources** and **social behavior**. Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players. \-      However, game theory involves ***intention reasoning*** about behaviours of others. Evolutionary game theory different because decisions might ***not be conscious intention*** on part of players. \-      Ex. **Altruism** -- 2 groups of monkeys, one selfish and one not. Selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators. Non-selfish group alerts others and leads to overall success of group over time.   **Society and Culture**          **Social Structures**          **Macrosociology vs. Microsociology**          2 different analysis of sociology to study societies. Need a place to start or it'll be overwhelming -- individual people, different groups, and communities/cultures/subcultures in a population.          **Macrosociology** -- large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities, and statistical data (as long as you're careful about not making wrong interpretations).  \-      Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economy \-      **Functionalism** comes from macrosociology -- looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning.  \-      **Conflict theory** is also a macroperspective -- the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved.          **Microsociology** -- face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of the society, look at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society. Ex. doctor-patient interactions, or family dynamics.  \-      **Symbolic interactionism** - social theory that's a microperspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives.          **Social Institutions**          Institutions are essential parts of a society, ex. police stations, hospitals, businesses. Impose [structure on how individuals behave.] Guide what we do. \-      They don't need any one individual, just need many of them, and each individual is very replaceable. Whereas without institution major changes can occur to individual. Imbalance in power.  \-      A form for filling the need.  \-      Sometimes need to be redesigned if they are to be helpful to society, ex. businesses.          We think of institutions as a business/corporation, sociologists thinks of social structures, governments, families, hospitals, schools, laws, religion, businesses, etc. All continue without any 1 individual.           Social Institutions -- **[Education, Family, Religion]**          Education, Family, Religion -- each of these institutions play a fundamental role in creating and supporting society, and each shape the individual in that society.          **Education** -- more than going to school, but there's a **hidden curriculum**: we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers. We internalize social inequalities, when boys and girls are treated differently by their teachers. \-      Expectation of teachers affects how students learn. Teachers tend to get what they expect. \-      Teachers put students in categorizations with different expectations, but what if categorization is wrong?  \-      Sometimes limiting factor comes from outside classroom. Schools experience educational **segregation** and stratification, because we fund schools through property taxes, which is why different districts are funded differently. Residential segregation.          **Family** -- defined by many forms of kinship, including marriage, blood, or adoption. Small nuclear family is more emphasized. \-      Different family values go with different social values of family and economy, ex. rural families were production based, so large. Urban families consumption based, so more strained.  \-      **Marriage** -- when people join together. Now, people can experience multiple marriages. Serial monogamous. Why **divorce** is more common, and creates tension. Some families also contain violence, ex. in **child abuse**. Also abuses through neglect -- children's basic needs aren't met**. Elder abuse** occurs when family isn't ready for responsibility of taking care of elders and cost of care homes. **Spouse abuse** also common, physical and psychological. Women's shelters don't always get kids, while social stigma of men not getting abused keeps them quiet.           **Religion** -- how religious a person is can range from spiritual/private to being in an institutionalized religion, celebrating certain holidays, etc.  \-      **Ecclesia** -- dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran.  \-      **Churches** are established religious bodies in a larger society.  \-      **Sects** tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish \-      **Cults** are more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long. \-      **Secularization** is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines.  \-      **Fundamentalism** -- reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.          [Social Institutions -- Government, Economy, Health and Medicine]          **Government** -- we give government the power and authority to manage the country. \-      Some governments take into account will of people, like **democracy**. \-      Others rule autonomously like **dictatorships**, no consent of citizens.  \-      **Communism** -- classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community. \-      **Monarchy** -- government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead.           **Economy** \-      **Capitalism** -- private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand \-      **Socialism** -- motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands.          Division of labour in government and economy is **functionalist** -- everyone is required to have responsibility in society.  \-      We value certain labours differently. Ex. Garbage men not as valued as athletes. We value jobs that require lots of specialization, rather than jobs essential in our society -- creates inequalities because not everyone has access to those valued professions, due to limited education/resources.           **Healthcare and Medicine** -- medicine exists to keep people healthy. \-      **Medicalization** occurs when human conditions [previously considered normal] get defined as ***medical conditions*** and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. Ex. mental health type issues, and physical issues like birth. People are over diagnosed. Ex. discovery of HIV.  \-      **Sick role** -- expectation in society that allows you to take a [break from responsibilities]. But if you ***don't*** get better or return, you're viewed as [deviant].  \-      **Delivery of healthcare** -- [massive inequalities] in terms of access. We take care of elderly through Medicaid and Medicare, and children through health child insurance. But people in between are left behind -- those who populate working force. Affordable Care Act is trying to fix this but too early to tell. Spend a lot of \$ on healthcare without desired outcomes, because we invest a lot more in helping people when they are sick [instead of preventative medicine].  \-      **Illness experience** -- process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Being ill can change a person's self-identity. Diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around the disease. Stigmas associated with certain diseases like mental illness and STDs. How people experience disease varies too if they have access to resources like palliative care. \-      **Social epidemiology** looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health. Correlation between [social advantages/disadvantages and distribution of health + disease. ]          **[Functionalism]**          **Functionalism** is a system of thinking based on ideas of Emile Durkheim that look at society from **large-scale perspective,** and how [each part helps keep society stable]. \-      It says that society is heading towards equilibrium. Ex. local businesses must adapt to new ways to cater to new ways to customers           Durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and social facts \-      **Institutions** are structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws, etc.  \-      **Social facts** are [ways of thinking] and acting [formed by society] that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead.  ·       Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. (Ex. the law) ·       Others are moral regulations, religious fates, and social currents like suicide/birth rate (one person committing suicide has no effect of suicide on society)           Society is dependent on structures that create it, like cell is dependent on parts that make it up.  \-      [Intended consequences] of institutions are **manifest functions**, ex. businesses provide a service. \-      [Unintended consequences], ex. schools expose students to new activities, and businesses connect people across society -- **latent functions**, indirect effects of institutions. \-      **Social dysfunction** is process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society.          Durkheim questioned how do societies stay together \-      **Small societies** are held together by [similarities,] but only works for small ones