Sociology Guide Quiz PDF

Social Stratification Definition Social Stratification: The arrangement of society into layers (strata) based on unequal distribution of resources, prestige, or power. Key Points 1. Not Individual Differences: Social stratification reflects societal structures, not individua...

Social Stratification Definition Social Stratification: The arrangement of society into layers (strata) based on unequal distribution of resources, prestige, or power. Key Points 1. Not Individual Differences: Social stratification reflects societal structures, not individual attributes. 2. Generational Carryover: Stratification persists over generations, affecting opportunities and life outcomes. 3. Influenced by Beliefs: Cultural beliefs shape stratification systems (e.g., meritocracy in the U.S. vs. caste system in India). Key Concepts Caste System: Rigid social hierarchy based on ascription (e.g., Hindu caste system). Class System: More fluid, based on achievement and economic factors. Meritocracy: The belief that success is based on individual effort and talent rather than social class. Social Differentiation: The process of distinguishing individuals based on characteristics (e.g., race, gender). Social Mobility: The ability to move within the social hierarchy. ○ Intergenerational Mobility: Changes in social status across generations. ○ Intragenerational Mobility: Changes in social status within a single generation. Plutocracy: Governance by the wealthy elite. Max Weber’s Perspective Key Contributions Status, Prestige, Power: Weber emphasizes the importance of social status and power, in addition to class and economic wealth. Socioeconomic Status (SES): A composite measure of an individual’s economic and social position. Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory Types of Capital  1. Economic Capital: Financial assets and resources. 2. Social Capital: Networks of relationships and social connections. 3. Cultural Capital: Knowledge, skills, and education. 4. Symbolic Capital: Recognition and prestige derived from other forms of capital. Class Structure Class Divisions Upper Class: ○ Upper Upper: Established wealth. ○ Lower Upper: Newly wealthy (e.g., corporate leaders). Middle Class: ○ Upper Middle: Professionals and managers. ○ Average Middle: Average income earners. ○ Working Class: Skilled and unskilled laborers. Lower Class: Individuals living in poverty. ○ Relative Poverty: Poverty in comparison to the living standards of the majority. ○ Absolute Poverty: Severe deprivation of basic human needs. Economic Systems Industrialism vs. Post-Industrialism Industrialism: Characterized by factory-based labor. Post-Industrialism: Shift to a service-oriented economy. Economic Models Capitalism: Private ownership of the means of production; market forces dictate economic activity. ○ Laissez-Faire Economics: Minimal government intervention in the economy. Socialism: Collective ownership of the means of production; state-directed economic activity. Groups and Organizations Social Groups Definition: Collections of individuals who interact and develop a sense of togetherness. Key Dimensions: ○ Level of Affinity: Degree of personal connection.  ○ Primary Group: Close, intimate relationships (e.g., family). ○ Secondary Group: Larger, more impersonal groups (e.g., workplace). Group Dynamics In-Group vs. Out-Group: Groups to which one belongs vs. those to which one does not. Simmel’s Dyad vs. Triad: The transition from two-person to three-person groups increases complexity, reduces intimacy, and enhances coalition potential. Leadership Types Instrumental Leader: Focuses on task-oriented goals. Expressive Leader: Prioritizes group cohesion and morale. Organizations Types of Organizations: ○ Utilitarian: Goal-oriented (e.g., businesses). ○ Normative: Value-based (e.g., nonprofit organizations). ○ Coercive: Forced participation (e.g., prisons). Bureaucracy Characteristics: ○ Impersonality, hierarchy, specialization. ○ Bureaucratic Alienation: Individuals feel disconnected in bureaucratic settings. ○ Bureaucratic Ritualism: Excessive adherence to rules hinders organizational goals. McDonaldization Principles: ○ Efficiency: Streamlining processes. ○ Calculability: Emphasis on quantifiable outcomes. ○ Predictability: Standardized services and products. ○ Control: Over people and resources. Weber’s Iron Cage The idea that rationalization can lead to dehumanizing structures, trapping individuals in systems that prioritize efficiency over personal agency. Deviance Definitions Deviance: Violation of cultural norms, not always codified into law. Crime: Deviance that is formally enacted into law. Social Controls Internal Controls: Personal conscience and internalized norms. External Controls: Social sanctions and laws. Explanations of Deviance Biological Accounts: Suggests genetics influence deviance, though insufficient to explain all behaviors. Psychological Accounts: Focus on mental health and behavior, often with vague definitions. Social Accounts: Examines societal context and power dynamics in defining deviance. Theories of Deviance Merton’s Strain Theory: Addresses the relationship between societal goals and means, categorizing responses: ○ Innovators: Create new means to achieve goals. ○ Conformists: Accept means and goals. ○ Ritualists: Reject goals but accept means. ○ Rebels: Reject both means and goals. ○ Retreatists: Withdraw from societal expectations. Labeling Theory Focuses on how labels affect identity and behavior, including concepts of: ○ Primary vs. Secondary Deviance: Initial acts of deviance vs. identity shaped by societal labels. ○ Stigma: Social discrediting based on deviant labels. Bruce Western’s Research Highlights disparities in incarceration rates among young black males, suggesting systemic inequalities: ○ Laws disproportionately criminalize the poor. ○ Increased visibility and scrutiny of street deviance. Responses to Deviance  Retribution: Punishment as a form of societal revenge. Incapacitation: Removing offenders from society to prevent future crime. Rehabilitation: Aiming to reform offenders. Deterrence: Discouraging future crime through the threat of punishment. White Collar Crime Definitions: ○ Occupational Crime: Committed by individuals for personal gain. ○ Organizational Crime: Committed by organizations for profit.