Research IV Quarter 2 Weeks 1 and 2 PDF

FOR ZAMBOANGA CITY DIVISION USE ONLY NOT FOR SALE 10 RESEARCH IV QUARTER 2 Weeks 1 and 2 Capsulized Self-Learning Empowerment...

FOR ZAMBOANGA CITY DIVISION USE ONLY NOT FOR SALE 10 RESEARCH IV QUARTER 2 Weeks 1 and 2 Capsulized Self-Learning Empowerment Toolkit Schools Division Office of Zamboanga City Region IX, Zamboanga Peninsula Zamboanga City “Unido, Junto avanza con el EduKalidad Cree, junto junto puede!” DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  1 SUBJECT & Grade 10 QUARTER 2 WEEK 1-2 DATE _ GRADE/LEVEL RESEARCH IV DD/MM/YYYY TOPIC Revisiting of the Research Paper: Results 1. Conduct an enhanced/continuing research project. (SSP_RS10-ECR-II-g-j-3) LEARNING 2. Practice constant consultation with experts. (SSP_RS10- COMPETENCIES ECR-II-III-k-n-4) 3. Finalize the research paper. (SSP_RS10-ECR-III-o-r-5) IMPORTANT: Do not write anything on this material. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper and don not forget to answer all SAQs. UNDERSTAND What is the Results Section? The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated from your own research (Annesley, 2010). In some paper, the results section is separate from the discussion section while in some the results is merged with the discussion section. What is the function of the Results section? The function of the Results section is to objectively present your key results, without interpretation, in an orderly and logical sequence using both text and illustrative materials (Tables and Figures). The results section always begins with text, reporting the key results and referring to your figures and tables as you proceed. Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear either in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant Tables or Figures (in the legend or as footnotes to the Table or Figure). The Results section should be organized around Tables and/or Figures that should be sequenced to present your key findings in a logical order. The text of the Results section should be crafted to follow this sequence and highlight the evidence needed to answer the questions/hypotheses you investigated. Important negative results should be reported, too. Authors usually write the text of the results section based upon the sequence of Tables and Figures. Here are some sample table and figure found in the results section of the paper: DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  2 In writing your scientific paper, practice is a must! To familiarize yourself more on how to write the Results section of your paper, kindly download published articles from the following sites: o www.sciencedirect.com o scholar.google.com What is the function of the Results section? This is the core of the paper. Don't start the results sections with methods you left out of the Materials and Methods section. You need to give an overall description of the experiments and present the data you found. Goals:  Factual statements supported by evidence. Short and sweet without excess words  Present representative data rather than endlessly repetitive data  Discuss variables only if they had an effect (positive or negative)  Use meaningful statistics  Avoid redundancy. If it is in the tables or captions you may not need to repeat it What are the important notes to remember in writing a good Results Section? According to USC Libraries (2020), these are some points to remember when writing a good Result section:  When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything. Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.  The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Be concise, using non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  3 describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.  Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question. The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper]. Furthermore, Bates College (2011) also included the following considerations when writing the Results section:  What are the "results”? When you pose a testable hypothesis that can be answered experimentally, or ask a question that can be answered by collecting samples, you accumulate observations about those organisms or phenomena. Those observations are then analyzed to yield an answer to the question. In general, the answer is the " key result". The above statements apply regardless of the complexity of the analysis you employ. So, in an introductory course your analysis may consist of visual inspection of figures and simple calculations of means and standard deviations; in a later course you may be expected to apply and interpret a variety of statistical tests. Your instructor will tell you the level of analysis that is expected. For example, suppose you asked the question, "Is the average height of male students the same as female students in a pool of randomly selected Biology majors?" You would first collect height data from large random samples of male and female students. You would then calculate the descriptive statistics for those samples (mean, SD, n, range, etc.) and plot these numbers. In a course where statistical tests are not employed, you would visually inspect these plots. Suppose you found that male Biology majors are, on average, 12.5 cm taller than female majors; this is the answer to the question. Notice that the outcome of a statistical analysis is not a key result, but rather an analytical tool that helps us understand what is our key result.  Differences, directionality, and magnitude: Report your results so as to provide as much information as possible to the reader about the nature of differences or relationships. For example, if you testing for differences among groups, and you find a significant difference, it is not sufficient to simply report that "groups A and B were significantly different". How are they different? How much are they different? It is much more informative to say something like, "Group A individuals were 23% larger than those in Group B", or, "Group B pups gained weight at twice the rate of Group A pups." Report the direction of differences (greater, larger, smaller, etc.) and the magnitude of differences (% difference, how many times, etc.) whenever possible. See also below about use of the word "significant."  Statistical test summaries (test name, p-value) are usually reported parenthetically in conjunction with the biological results they support. Always report your results with parenthetical reference to the statistical conclusion that supports your finding (if statistical tests are being used in your course). This parenthetical reference should include the statistical test used and DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  4 the level of significance (test statistic and DF are optional). For example, if you found that the mean height of male Biology majors was significantly larger than that of female Biology majors, you might report this result (thin font) and your statistical conclusion (shown in Bold font) as follows: "Males (180.5 ± 5.1 cm; n=34) averaged 12.5 cm taller than females (168 ± 7.6 cm; n=34) in the AY 1995 pool of Biology majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f., p < 0.001)." If the summary statistics are shown in a figure, the sentence above need not report them specifically, but must include a reference to the figure where they may be seen: "Males averaged 12.5 cm taller than females in the AY 1995 pool of Biology majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f., p < 0.001; Fig. 1)." Note that the report of the key result (shown in thin fonts) would be identical in a paper written for a course in which statistical testing is not employed - the section shown in bold fonts would simply not appear except reference to the figure.  Avoid devoting whole sentences to report a statistical outcome alone.  Use and over-use of the word "significant": Your results will read much more cleanly if you avoid overuse of the word significant in any of its forms.  In scientific studies, the use of this word implies that a statistical test was employed to make a decision about the data; in this case the test indicated a larger difference in mean heights than you would expect to get by chance alone. Limit the use of the word "significant" to this purpose only.  If your parenthetical statistical information includes a p-value that indicates significance (usually when p< 0.05), it is unnecessary (and redundant) to use the word "significant" in the body of the sentence (see example above) because we all interpret the p-value the same way.  Likewise, when you report that one group mean is somehow different from another (larger, smaller, increased, decreased, etc.), it will be understood by your reader that you have tested this and found the difference to be statistically significant, especially if you also report a p-value < 0.05.  Present the results of your experiment(s) in a sequence that will logically support (or provide evidence against) the hypothesis, or answer the question, stated in the Introduction. For example, in reporting a study of the effect of an experimental diet on the skeletal mass of the rat, consider first giving the data on skeletal mass for the rats fed the control diet and then give the data for the rats fed the experimental diet.  Always enter the appropriate units when reporting data or summary statistics. o for an individual value you would write, "the mean length was 10 m", or, "the maximum time was 140 min." o When including a measure of variability, place the unit after the error value, e.g., "...was 10 ± 2.3 m". o Likewise place the unit after the last in a series of numbers all having the same unit. For example: "lengths of 5, 10, 15, and 20 m", or "no differences were observed after 2, 4, 6, or 8 min. of incubation". DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  5 Style in writing the Results section Write the text of the Results section concisely and objectively. The passive voice will likely dominate here, but use the active voice as much as possible. Use the past tense. Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. Do not interpret the data here. The transition into interpretive language can be a slippery slope. Consider the following two examples:  This example highlights the trend/difference that the author wants the reader to focus: The duration of exposure to running water had a pronounced effect on cumulative seed germination percentages (Fig. 2). Seeds exposed to the 2-day treatment had the highest cumulative germination (84%), 1.25 times that of the 12-h or 5-day groups and 4 times that of controls.  In contrast, this example strays subtly into interpretation by referring to optimality (a conceptual model) and tying the observed result to that idea: The results of the germination experiment (Fig. 2) suggest that the optimal time for running-water treatment is 2 days. This group showed the highest cumulative germination (84%), with longer (5 d) or shorter (12 h) exposures producing smaller gains in germination when compared to the control group. Structure and approach in writing the Results section For most research paper formats, there are two ways of presenting and organizing the results. 1. Present the results followed by a short explanation of the findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is correct to point this out in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists, and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening, belongs in the discussion section of your paper. 2. Present a section and then discuss it, before presenting the next section then discussing it, and so on. This is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it can be helpful to provide a brief conclusion in the results section that ties each of the findings together and links to the discussion. NOTE: The discussion section should generally follow the same format chosen in presenting and organizing the results. What are the possible contents of the Results section? In general, the content of your results section should include the following elements: 1. An introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem that underpins the purpose of your study. 2. A summary of your key findings arranged in a logical sequence that generally follows your methodology section. 3. Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate the findings, if appropriate. DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  6 4. In the text, a systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation [remember that not all results that emerge from the methodology that you used to gather the data may be relevant]. 5. Use of the past tense when referring to your results. 6. The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported. However, focus only on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. Using Non-textual  tables, charts, etc. within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the report--do one or the other but never do both.  In the text, refer to each non-textual element in numbered order [e.g., Table 1, Table 2; Chart 1, Chart 2; Map 1, Map 2].  If you place non-textual elements at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data.  Regardless of placement, each non-textual element must be numbered consecutively and complete with caption [caption goes under the figure, table, chart, etc.]  Each non-textual element must be titled, numbered consecutively, and complete with a heading [title with description goes above the figure, table, chart, etc.].  In proofreading your results section, be sure that each non-textual element is sufficiently complete so that it could stand on its own, separate from the text. How do you organize the results section based on the sequence of Table and Figures you'll include? Prepare the Tables and Figures as soon as all the data are analyzed and arrange them in the sequence that best presents your findings in a logical way. A good strategy is to note, on a draft of each Table or Figure, the one or two key results you want to address in the text portion of the Results. Simple rules to follow related to Tables and Figures:  Tables and Figures are assigned numbers separately and in the sequence that you will refer to them from the text.  The first Table you refer to is Table 1, the next Table 2 and so forth.  Similarly, the first Figure is Figure 1, the next Figure 2, etc.  Each Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented and other necessary information in a legend.  Table legends go above the Table; tables are read from top to bottom.  Figure legends go below the figure; figures are usually viewed from bottom to top.  When referring to a Figure from the text, "Figure" is abbreviated as Fig.,e.g., Fig. 1. Table is never abbreviated, e.g., Table 1. What are some of the things to AVOID when writing the Results Section? When writing the results section, avoid doing the following:  Discussing or interpreting your results. Save all this for the next section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to Smith , one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."]. DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  7  Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings; this should have been done in your Introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need to provide additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Revise your introduction as needed.  Ignoring negative results. If some of your results fail to support your hypothesis, do not ignore them. Document them, then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, often provides you with the opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be afraid to highlight them.  Including raw data or intermediate calculations. Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.  Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings. Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater or lesser than..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...."  Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once. If you feel the need to highlight something, you will have a chance to do that in the discussion section.  Confusing figures with tables. Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. If you are not sure, look up the term in a dictionary. SAQ-1: Why should you avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question? SAQ-2: Why should you report negative results of your study? For more information about the Results Section, you may explore the following links:  https://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HT Wfaqs.html#resultsps  https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185931#:~:text= The%20results%20section%20of%20the,arranged%20in%20a%20l ogical%20sequence.bacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resource s/writing/HTWfaqs.html#results  When writing your result section, you have to consider the best way to communicate information to your audience. Generally speaking, data summaries may take the form of text, tables or figures. Most writers are familiar with textual data summaries and this is often the best way to communicate simple results. A good rule of thumb is to see if you can present your results clearly in a sentence or two. If so, a table or figure is probably unnecessary. If your data are too numerous or complicated to be described adequately in this amount of space, figures and tables can be effective ways of conveying lots of information without cluttering up your text. Additionally, they serve as quick references for your reader and can reveal trends, patterns, or relationships that might otherwise be difficult to grasp. What are Tables? Tables are a concise and effective way to present large amounts of data. You should design them carefully so that you clearly communicate your results to busy researchers. DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  8 The following is an example of a well-designed table:  Clear and concise legend/caption  Data divided into categories for clarity  Sufficient spacing between columns and rows  Units are provided  Font type and size are legible Table 2 Ecological footprint ledger of the energy resources in Zhifanggou watershed before and after grain for green policy Energy Total Convert Consumption Global average Ecological Biological Consumption coefficient (GJ per capita (GJ (GJ hm-2) footprint per productivity (t) t-1) cap-1) capita (hm2 area cap-1) Before grain for Coal 0.250 20.934 0.010 55 0.0002 Energy land green policy Petrol 2.050 43.124 0.169 93 0.0018 Energy land Diesel 9.230 42.705 0.753 93 0.0081 Energy land Electricity 0.002 0.004 12.000 1000 0.0120 Built-up land After grain for Coal 0.246 20.934 0.010 55 0.0002 Energy land green policy Petrol 2.705 43.124 0.227 93 0.0024 Energy land Diesel 7.740 42.705 0.643 93 0.0069 Energy land Electricity 0.002* 0.004* 12.000 1000 0.0120 Built-up land The conversion of electricity referenced the related standard of energy conversion, 1 wh = 3,6000 J a The unit was kWh b The unit was GJ/kWh Source: Environmental Earth Sciences (2009) 59:529–536 Guidelines for tables: 1. Combine repetitive tables: Tables and figures that present repetitive information will impair communication rather than enhance it. Examine the titles of all your tables and figures and check if they talk about the same or similar things. If they do, rethink the presentation and combine or delete the tables/graphs. 2. Divide the data: When presenting large amounts of information, divide the data into clear and appropriate categories and present them in columns titled accurately and descriptively. 3. Watch the extent of data in your tables: If the data you have to present is extensive and would make the tables too cluttered or long, consider making the tables a part of the Appendix or supplemental material. 4. De-clutter your table: Ensure that there is sufficient spacing between columns and rows and that the layout does not make the table look too messy or crowded Example of well-prepared table: The table below is taken from a dietary study on chick-rearing macaroni penguins26 and is an example of an effective table for the following reasons: 1. The title clearly describes what the table is about. 2. The column heads are descriptive and clearly indicate the nature of the data presented. 3. The data is divided into categories for clarity. DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  9 4. It is self-contained and can be understood quite well even without reference to the entire paper. 5. Superscript letters and notes are used to offer additional, clarifying information. 6. Sufficient spacing is present between columns and rows; the layout is clean, and the font is legible. What are Figures? Figures can take many forms. They may be graphs, diagrams, photos, drawings, or maps. Think deliberately about your purpose and use common sense to choose the most effective figure for communicating the main point. If you want your reader to understand spatial relationships, a map or photograph may be the best choice. If you want to illustrate proportions, experiment with a pie chart or bar graph. If you want to illustrate the relationship between two variables, try a line graph or a scatterplot (more on various types of graphs below). Although there are many types of figures, like tables, they share some typical features: captions, the image itself, and any necessary contextual information (which will vary depending on the type of figure you use). Figures are ideal for presenting:  Images  Data plots  Maps  Schematics Just like tables all figures need to have a clear and concise legend caption to accompany them. Images Images help readers visualize the information you are trying to convey. Often, it is difficult to be sufficiently descriptive using words. Images can help in achieving the accuracy needed for a scientific manuscript. For example, it may not be enough to say, “The surface had nanometer scale features.” In this case, it would be ideal to provide a microscope image. For images, be sure to:  Include scale bars  Consider labeling important items  Indicate the meaning of different colours and symbols used Data plots Data plots convey large quantities of data quickly. The goal is often to show a functional or statistical relationship between two or more items. However, details about the individual data points are often omitted to place emphasis on the relationship that is shown by the collection of points. Here, we have examples of figures combining images and a plots in multiple panels. For data plots, be sure to:  Label all axes  Specify units for quantities  Label all curves and data sets Source: Nano Research (2010) 3:843–851  Use a legible font size DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  10 Source: Borrego et al. Cancer & Metabolism 2016 4:9 Maps Maps are important for putting field work in the context of the location where it was performed. A good map will help your reader understand how the site affects your study. Moreover, it will help other researchers reproduce your work or find other locations with similar properties. Here, we have a map used in a study about salmon. For maps, be sure to:  Include latitude and longitude  Include scale bars  Label important items  Consider adding a map legend Source: Environmental Biology of Fishes (2011) DOI: 10.1007/s10641-011-9783-5 Schematics Schematics help identify the key parts to a system or process. They should highlight only the key elements because adding unimportant items may clutter the image. A schematic only includes the drawings the author chooses, offering a degree of flexibility not offered by images. They can also be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to capture an image. Below is a schematic explaining how nanotubes could be used to harvest energy from a fluid. For schematics, be sure to:  Label key items Source: Nano Research (2011) 4:284–289  Provide complementary explanations in the caption and main text DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  11 What are Graphs? Every graph is a figure but not every figure is a graph. Graphs are a particular set of figures that display quantitative relationships between variables. Some of the most common graphs include bar charts, frequency histograms, pie charts, scatter plots, and line graphs, each of which displays trends or relationships within and among datasets in a different way. You’ll need to carefully choose the best graph for your data and the relationship that you want to show. More details about some common graph types are provided below. Some good advice regarding the construction of graphs is to keep it simple. Remember that the main objective of your graph is communication. If your viewer is unable to visually decode your graph, then you have failed to communicate the information contained within it. Pie charts Pie charts are used to show relative proportions, specifically the relationship of a number of parts to the whole. Use pie charts only when the parts of the pie are mutually exclusive categories and the sum of parts adds up to a meaningful whole (100% of something). Pie charts are good at showing “big picture” relationships (i.e. some categories make up “a lot” or “a little” of the whole thing). However, if you want your reader to discern fine distinctions within your data, the pie chart is not for you. Humans are not very good at making comparisons based on angles. We are much better at comparing length, so try a bar chart as an alternative way to show relative proportions. Additionally, pie charts with lots of little slices or slices of very different sizes are difficult to read, so limit yours to 5-7 categories. Example of a bad pie chart: The chart shows the relative proportion of five leisure activities of Venusian teenagers (tanning, trips to Mars, reading, messing with satellites, and stealing Earth cable). Although each of the five slices are about the same size (roughly 20% of the total), the percentage of Venusian teenagers engaging in each activity varies widely (tanning: 80%, trips to Mars: 40%, reading: 12%, messing with satellites: 30%, stealing Earth cable: 77%). Therefore, there is a mismatch between the labels and the actual proportion represented by each activity (in other words, if reading represents 12% of the total, its slice should take up 12% of the pie chart area), which makes the representation inaccurate. In addition, the labels for the five slices add up to 239% (rather than 100%), which makes it impossible to accurately represent this dataset using a pie chart. Bar graphs Bar graphs are also used to display proportions. In particular, they are useful for showing the relationship between independent and dependent variables, where the independent variables are discrete (often nominal) categories. Some examples are occupation, gender, and species. Bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal. In a vertical bar graph the independent variable is shown on the x axis (left to right) and the dependent variable on the y axis (up and down). In a horizontal one, the dependent variable will be shown on the horizontal (x) axis, the independent on the vertical (y) axis. The scale and origin of the graph should be meaningful. If the dependent (numeric) variable has a natural zero point, it is commonly used as a point of origin for the bar chart. However, zero is not always the best choice. You should experiment with both origin and scale to best show the relevant trends in your data without misleading the viewer in terms of the strength or extent of those trends. Example of a bar graph: DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  12 The graph shows the number of male and female spaceship crew members for five different popular television series: Star Trek (1965), Battlestar (1978), Star Trek: TNG (1987), Stargate SG-1 (1997), and Firefly (2002). Because the television series are arranged chronologically on the x-axis, the graph can also be used to look for trends in these numbers over time. Frequency histograms/distributions Frequency histograms are a special type of bar graph that show the relationship between independent and dependent variables, where the independent variable is continuous, rather than discrete. This means that each bar represents a range of values, rather than a single observation. The dependent variables in a histogram are always numeric, but may be absolute (counts) or relative (percentages). Frequency histograms are good for describing populations—examples include the distribution of exam scores for students in a class or the age distribution of the people living in Chapel Hill. You can experiment with bar ranges (also known as “bins”) to achieve the best level of detail, but each range or bin should be of uniform width and clearly labeled. XY scatter plots Scatter plots are another way to illustrate the relationship between two variables. In this case, data are displayed as points in an x,y coordinate system, where each point represents one observation along two axes of variation. Often, scatter plots are used to illustrate correlation between two variables—as one variable increases, the other increases (positive correlation) or decreases (negative correlation). However, correlation does not necessarily imply that changes in one variable cause changes in the other. For instance, a third, unplotted variable may be causing both. In other words, scatter plots can be used to graph one independent and one dependent variable, or they can be used to plot two independent variables. In cases where one variable is dependent on another (for example, height depends partly on age), plot the independent variable on the horizontal (x) axis, and the dependent variable on the vertical (y) axis. In addition to correlation (a linear relationship), scatter plots can be used to plot non-linear relationships between variables. Example of a scatter plot: The scatter plot shows the relationship between temperature (x-axis, independent variable) and the number of UFO sightings (y-axis, dependent variable) for 53 separate data points. The temperature ranges from about 0°F and 120°F, and the number of UFO sightings ranges from 1 to 10. The plot shows a low number of UFO sightings (ranging from 1 to 4) at temperatures below DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  13 80°F and a much wider range of the number of sightings (from 1 to 10) at temperatures above 80°F. It appears that the number of sightings tends to increase as temperature increases, though there are many cases where only a few sightings occur at high temperatures. XY line graphs Line graphs are similar to scatter plots in that they display data along two axes of variation. Line graphs, however, plot a series of related values that depict a change in one variable as a function of another, for example, world population (dependent) over time (independent). Individual data points are joined by a line, drawing the viewer’s attention to local change between adjacent points, as well as to larger trends in the data. Line graphs are similar to bar graphs, but are better at showing the rate of change between two points. Line graphs can also be used to compare multiple dependent variables by plotting multiple lines on the same graph. Example: The line graph shows the age (in years) of the actor of each Doctor Who regeneration for the first through the eleventh regeneration. The ages range from a maximum of about 55 in the first regeneration to a minimum of about 25 in the eleventh regeneration. There is a downward trend in the age of the actors over the course of the eleven regenerations. Examples of an effective figure (graph) The figure below from a paper on the efficacy of oyster reefs as natural breakwaters27, scores on several counts: 1. The informative title that immediately tells the reader what to expect in the graph. 2. The axes are labeled clearly. 3. The key clearly identifies what each element in the graph stands for. 4. A figure legend at the bottom draws the reader’s attention to the graph's key points. 5. A note at the bottom acknowledges the source. 6. The graph is 2-dimensional, with no clutter. DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  14 Common Errors in Research Papers Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding the common errors that make data presentation ineffective. These common mistakes include using the wrong type of figure for the data. For instance, using a scatterplot instead of a bar graph for showing levels of hydration is a mistake. Another common mistake is that some authors tend to italicize the table number. Remember, only the table title should be italicized. Another common mistake is failing to attribute the table. If the table/figure is from another source, simply put “Note. Adapted from…” underneath the table. This should help avoid any issues with plagiarism. Using tables and figures in research papers is essential for the paper’s readability. The reader is given a chance to understand data through visual content. When writing a research paper, these elements should be considered as part of good research writing. APA research papers, MLA research papers, and other manuscripts require visual content if the data is too complex or voluminous. The importance of tables and graphs is underscored by the main purpose of writing, and that is to be understood. When to use tables and figures in scientific papers? Producing effective tables and figures requires careful planning that begins at the manuscript writing stage itself. Here’s how to go about it: 1. First, ask your research adviser the preferred format for the results section. Schools/institution may differ in the paper writing format. 2. Next, decide whether to use tables and figures or text to put across key information. (Refer to Table 1 below for help on making this decision.) 3. After you’ve decided to use a display item, choose the display item that best fits your purpose based on what you wish readers to focus on and what you want to present. (Refer to Table 1 below for more information.) 4. Finally, follow the best-practice guidelines outlined in section 3 and review the examples presented in section 4 of this paper to ensure that your tables and figures are well-designed. Table 1: How to choose between tables, figures, and text to present data Use a Table Use a Figure Use Text To show many and precise To show trends, patterns and When you don’t have numerical values and other relationships across and between extensive or specific data in a small space data sets when the general pattern complicated data to is more important than the exact present. data values (what to use: graphs and data plots) To compare and contrast To summarize research results When putting your data values or characteristics (what to use: graphs, data plots, data into a table among related items or items maps and pie charts). would mean creating with several shared a table with 2 or characteristics or variables. fewer columns. To show the presence or To present a visual explanation of When the data you absence of specific a sequence of events, procedures, are planning to characteristics geographic features, or physical present is peripheral characteristics (what to use: to the study or schematic diagram s, images, irrelevant to the main photographs, and maps. study findings. DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  15 Let’s Practice! (Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.) Part A. 1. Download this published article entitled: Enhancing growth and yield of crops with nutrient-enriched organic fertilizer at wet and dry seasons in ensuring climate-smart agriculture (Authors: Taiwo B. Hammed, Elizabeth O. Oloruntoba & G. R. E. E. Ana) – (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40093-019-0274-6). **note: you may print the hard copy if you want to or simply download the file to your mobile phone or any gadget. 2. Read the article and focus on its result section. 3. Answer the following guide questions:  Is the result section of this publish article well-constructed? Explain.  Is there a need for improvement (Result section only)? If yes, enumerate the things that needs improvement. 4. After reading the article and answering the guide question. Get your Grade 9 research paper/manuscript (last school year). Review your result section and compare it to the published article. Then answer these guide questions:  How is your paper different from the published article?  Is the result section of your research paper well-constructed? Explain.  Is there a need for improvement (Result section only)? If yes, enumerate the things that needs improvement. Part B. Direction: Construct an appropriate graph for each of the given data using Microsoft word or Microsoft excel or any program that you are comfortable with. 1. Caitlin’s family has kept track of her height in the past 8 year. The table below shows the data collected. Age (years) 0 (Birth) 2 4 6 8 Height (inches) 15 30 40 45 55 2. A group of kids spent a week at Big Tree Summer Camp. At the end of the week, the counselors asked campers what their favorite part of camp was. The table shows their responses. Camp Activity Percentage (%) Camp Fire 15 Craft 10 Canoeing 25 Horseback riding 50 3. The data below shows the number of pets that belong to the students of Miss Smith’s class. Animal Number Dogs 6 Cats 4 Fish 7 Birds 2 4. Actuaries use information about the magnitude and severity of earthquakes in a particular geographic area to help insurance companies determine how to serve their customers. The magnitude describes the size of the earthquake at the source. The table on the left below describes the earthquake’s intensity—the DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  16 effects of the earth’s shaking—at different locations away from Parkfield, California, a town famous for its seismic activity. Read the table, and construct a graph using the data below. Date of Earthquake: Sept. 28, 2004 Epicenter: 9 Miles South of Parkfield, CA Magnitude at Source: 6.0* Town Distance from the Intensity epicenter (Km) Armona, CA 89 IV Avenal, CA 35 V Boise, ID 934 I Coalinga, CA 47 V Denver, CO 1,431 I Fellows, CA 99 IV Henderson, NV 497 II Hutchinson, KS 2,019 I Las Vegas, NV 482 III Litchfield Park, AZ 778 III Pahrump, NV 401 III Rancho Palos Verdes, CA 294 IV Salt Lake City, UT 930 II Sevier, UT 781 II Strathmore, CA 129 V REMEMBER Key Points The IMRAD Format – Results Section  Results section is the core of the paper.  Results section is to objectively present your key results, without interpretation, in an orderly and logical sequence using both text and illustrative materials.  Results can be presented in a table, graphical form (bar graph, line graph, scatter plot, pie chart), or figures (image, data plot, maps and schematics).  In some papers, the results section is merged with the discussion section and in others they are separate from each other. TRY Your expected output is your improved research paper/manuscript in the IMRaD format duly corrected and approved by your research adviser to be submitted at the end of the school year. 2011. https://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/ HTWsections.html. “Figures and Charts.” The Writing Center University of North REFERENCE/S Carolina at Chapel Hill. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, June 15, 2020. https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and- tools/figures-and-charts/. “Figures and Tables.” www.springer.com. Springer Nature, 2020. https://www.springer.com/gp/authors- DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL  17 editors/authorandreviewertutorials/writing-a-journal- manuscript/figures-and-tables/10285530. “Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 7. The Results.” Research Guides, 2020. https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/results. Rodrigues, Velany. “Tips on Effective Use of Tables and Figures in Research Papers.” Editage Insights, November 4, 2013. https://www.editage.com/insights/tips-on-effective-use-of- tables-and-figures-in-research-papers. “Writing a Scientific Paper: RESULTS.” Research Guides, 2020. https://guides.lib.uci.edu/c.php?g=334338&p=2249906. This learning resource contains copyrighted materials. The use of which has not been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. We are developing this CapSLET in our efforts to provide printed references to the learning continuity plan of this division in this time of DISCLAIMER pandemic. This material is not intended for uploading nor for commercial use but purely for educational purposes and for the utilization of Zamboanga City Division only. DEVELOPED BY: RIZZA EARL VEVERLY T. ANGELES, Teacher III DON PABLO LORENZO MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL