Jeialani Ray - Anatomy & Physiology Semester 1 Final Study Guide PDF 2024-2025

Anatomy & Physiology Semester 1 Final Study Guide 2023-2024 1. Know the levels of organization in the human body from smallest to largest a) Cells b) Tissues c) Organs d) Organ systems e) Organisms 2. Know the organ systems and their functions Integumentary System...

Anatomy & Physiology Semester 1 Final Study Guide 2023-2024 1. Know the levels of organization in the human body from smallest to largest a) Cells b) Tissues c) Organs d) Organ systems e) Organisms 2. Know the organ systems and their functions Integumentary System - Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes hair and fingernails - Waterproofs the body; cushions/protects deeper tissue - Vitamin D w/ the help of sunlight; excretes salts - Helps regulate body temp; location of cutaneous nerve receptors Skeletal system - Consists bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints - Provides muscle attachment for movement - Protects vital organs; site of blood cell formation; stores minerals (support, protect, storage) Muscular System - Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten) - Produces movement of bones Nervous System  - Fast-acting control system - Consists of brian, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors - Responds to internal and external stimuli - Sensory receptors detect changes - Messages are sent to the central nervous system - Central nervous system assesses information and activates effectors (muscles and glands) Endocrine system !! ○ Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into the blood ○ Body functions controlled by hormones include: Growth Reproduction Use of nutrients Cardiovascular System !! - Includes heart and blood vessels - Heart pumps blood - vessels transport blood to tissues - Blood transports: - Oxygen and carbon dioxide - Hormones - Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that provide protection from foreign invaders Lymphatic system  - Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,and lymphoid organs - Compliments the cardiovascular system by returning leaked fluids back to bloodstream - Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood - Houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity(*helps fight infections) Respiratory System - Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs - Gasses exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the lungs - Supplies body w/ oxygen - Removes carbon dioxide Digestive system - Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory organs - Breaks down food; allows nutrients absorbed into blood; eliminates indigestible material as feces Urinary System - Includes kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes, maintains acid-base balance - Regulates water and electrolyte balance; helps regulate normal blood pressure Reproductive system - males= testes, scrotum, accessory glands, duct system  - Testes produce sperm - duct system carries sperm to exterior - females= ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus - ovaries produce eggs; uterus provides site of development for fetus 3. Know the anatomical position The standard position in which the body is standing upright, facing forward, with arms at the side, palms facing forward, and feet parallel The standard body position used to avoid confusion Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position 4. Know the directional terms Superior (above): (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or upper part of a structure or the body Inferior (below): (caudal): Away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure or the body Anterior (front): (ventral): Toward or at the front of the body Posterior (back): (dorsal): toward or at the backside of the body Medial (toward the midline): toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of Lateral (away from the midline): away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of  Proximal (closer to the trunk): close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk Distal (farther from the trunk): farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure Superficial: (external): toward or at the body surface Deep: (internal): away from the body surface; more internal 5. Know the quadrants The abdomen is divided into 4 quadrants ○ Right upper quadrant (RUQ) ○ Left upper quadrant (LUQ) ○ Right lower quadrant (RLQ) ○ Left lower quadrant (LLQ) 6. Know the body regions 7. Know what anatomy & physiology mean and the difference between them Anatomy  ○ The study of the structure of living organisms Physiology ○ The study of how living organisms function Difference ○ Anatomy focuses on the structures and parts of the body, while physiology looks at how those structures work together to carry out functions COME BACK TO THIS 8. Know the body cavities 2 internal body cavities (*2 major body cavities) - Dorsal - Ventral Dorsal body cavity has 2 subdivisions 1. Cranial cavity - Houses the brain - Protected by the skull 2. Spinal cavity - Houses the spinal cord - Protected by the vertebrae Ventral body cavity has 2 subdivisions separated by the diaphragm ○ Thoracic cavity (*heart area surgery) ○ Abdominopelvic cavity 1. Thoracic cavity - Cavity superior to the diaphragm  - Houses heart, lungs, and other organs - Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and other organs - Protected by the rib cage 2. Abdominopelvic cavity - Cavity inferior to the diaphragm - Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other organs - Protected only by trunk muscles - Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder. And rectum - Protected somewhat by bony pelvis - No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavities 9. Know positive and negative feedback loops and examples these mechanisms help maintain homeostasis in the body Positive feedback loop amplifies a response (childbirth) ○ Rare in the human body ○ Increases the original stimulus to push the variable further ○ Reaction occurs at the faster rate ○ In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a body  Negative feedback loop reverses a change to return to set point (regulating body temperature, shivering, sweat) ○ Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms ○ Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity ○ Works like a household thermostat 10. Know the body planes and lines Body planes: ○ Sagittal (divides the body into left and right) ○ Frontal/coronal (divides the body into front and back) Divides into anterior and posterior parts ○ Transverse/horizontal (Divides the body into top and bottom) Divides into superior and inferior parts ○ Median/ midsagittal Equal left or right parts Body lines ○ Imaginary lines used to describe anatomical directions or references 11. Know types of energy (Chapter 2) Mechanical energy ○ Energy associated with motion or position Thermal energy ○ Energy associated with the temperature of an object or system  Chemical energy ○ Energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules Electrical energy ○ Energy carried by an electrical current Nuclear energy ○ Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom Radiant energy ○ Energy that travels in waves and includes visible light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation Potential energy ○ Stored energy waiting to be used Kinetic energy ○ Energy of motion 12. Know what substances are most common in order The most common substances in living organisms are: ○ Oxygen ○ Carbon ○ Hydrogen ○ Nitrogen 13. Know what isotopes and radioisotopes are  Isotopes ○ Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Different number of atomic masses Radioisotopes ○ Unstable isotopes that undergo radioactive decay. Heavy isotope of certain atoms, unstable, decomposes to more stable isotope 14. Know what ions are and the difference between cations and anions Ions are charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons Cations are positively charged ions formed by losing electrons Anions are negatively charged ions formed by gaining electrons 15. Know the types of bonds Ionic bonds ○ Formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions Covalent bonds ○ Formed by sharing electrons between atoms ○ Atoms become stable through sharing electrons ○ Electrons are shared in pairs ○ Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons ○ Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons ○ Can be described as with polar or nonpolar  Nonpolar covalent ○ Electrons are shared equally between the atoms of a molecule Hydrogen bonds ○ Extremely weak chemical bonds between hydrogen and other electronegative atoms ○ Formed when a hydrogen atom is attracted to then negative portion, such as an oxygen or nitrogen atom, of a nonpolar molecule 16. Know why polar molecules are important and what they are Polar molecules have an uneven distribution of charge, with one being more positive and the other being more negative They easily cross the plasma membrane through aquaporins Electrons not shared equally between the atoms of the molecule They are important for biological systems because they can interact with other polar molecules and participate in hydrogen bonding 17. Know what hydrolysis is Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction that breaks down compounds by adding water It is important for breaking down complex molecules into simple ones, facilitating digestion and metabolism  Polymers are broken down into monomers through the addition of water molecules ○ As water molecules are added to each bond, the bond is broken, and the monomers are released 18. Know what the symbol ⇌ means - This symbol shows a reversible reaction, indicating that reactants can form products and products can react to form reactants 19. Know what the primary composition of organic compounds is Organic compounds ○ Contain carbon ○ Large, covalent molecules ○ Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids 20. Know why water is an excellent solvent Water is an excellent solvent because it is polar and has the ability to form hydrogen bonds It can dissolve a wide range of substances, making it essential for processes like nutrient transport and waste removal 21. Know the pH scale and what pH human blood is 0=basic, 7= neutral, 10= acidic Human blood= 7 22. Know the types of carbohydrates and an example of each Monosaccharides ○ Single chain or ring structure ○ Contain 3-7 carbon atoms ○ Examples: glucose (blood sugar), fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose Disaccharides - two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis ○ Too large to pass through the cell membrane ○ Examples are sucrose, maltose, lactose Polysaccharides - Long, branching chains of linked simple sugars ○ Large and insoluble molecules ○ Functions as storage products ○ Examples are starch and glycogen 23. Know the DNA and RNA base pairs Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ○ The genetic material found within the cells nucleus ○ Provides instructions for every protein in the body ○ Organized by complementary bases to form a double stranded helix  ○ Contains the sugar deoxyribose and the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine ○ Replicates before cell division ○ A-T, C-G Ribonucleic acid (RNA) ○ Carries out DNA’s instructions for protein synthesis ○ Created from a template of DNA ○ Organized by complementary bases to form a single-strand helix ○ Contains the sugar ribose and the bases adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine ○ Three varieties are messenger, transfer, and ribosomal RNA 24. Know what the head and tail of a phospholipid are Phospholipids ○ Contains two fatty acids chains rather than three; they are hydrophobic (water fearing) ○ Phosphorus - containing polar “head” carries an electrical charge and its hydrophilic ○ Charged “head” region interacts with water and ions while the fatty acids (tails) do not ○ From cell membranes 25. Know what plasma membranes do  Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier meaning it allows liquids or gasses to pass through 26. Know the types of transport and examples Passive substances: substances are transported across the membrane without any input from the cell Active processes: the cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the transport process 27. Know the difference between isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions and what they result in Osmosis ○ Isotonic solutions have the same solute and water concentrations as cells; cells gain and lose water at the same rate ○ Hypertonic solutions contain more solutes than the cells do; water is drawn out of the cell ○ Hypotonic solutions obtain fewer solutes (more water) then the cells fo; water is drawn into the cell 28. Know what codons are UUA-GCA-AGC 29. Know what replication, transcription, translation, and protein synthesis are  DNA Replication ○ Genetic material is duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells ○ Occurs toward the end of interphase Process of DNA replication ○ DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and each side serves as a template ○ Nucleotides are complementary Adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T) Guanine (G) always bonds with cytosine © Protein synthesis involves two major phases: ○ Transcription ○ Translation Details… ○ Transcription (copying DNA) Transfer information from DNA’s base sequence to the complementary base sequence of mRNA DNA is the template for transcription; mRNA is the product Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA codon If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the mRNA corresponding codons are UUA-GCA-AGC ○ Translation (reading and making new protein) Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid sequence; amino acids are the building blocks of proteins  Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major varieties of RNA 30. Know what mutations are and what they affect Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a gene/chromosomes that can affect an organism’s characteristics/traits Mutations can affect a wide variety of things like biochemical processes, susceptibility, and physical traits Some mutations are not as noticeable as others but just as significant 31. Know the stages of mitosis and what is occurring in each ○ Mitosis-division of the nucleus Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei ○ Cytokinesis-division of the cytoplasm Begins when mitosis is near completion Results in the formation of two daughter cells Events of Mitosis: Prophase ○ Chromatin coils into chromosomes; identical strands called chromatids are held together by a centromere ○ Centrioles direct the assembly of a mitotic spindle ○ Nuclear Envelope and nucleoli have broken down Events of mitosis:metaphase ○ Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell on the metaphase plate (center of the spindle midway between the centrioles)  ○ Straight line of chromosomes is now seen Events of mitosis: anaphase ○ Centromere splits ○ Chromatids move slowly apart and toward the opposite ends of the cell ○ Anaphase is over when the chromosomes stop moving Events of mitosis: Telophase ○ Reverse of prophase ○ Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin ○ Spindles break down and disappear ○ Nuclear envelope re-forms around chromatin ○ Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei Cytokinesis ○ Division of the cytoplasm ○ Begins during late anaphase and completes during telophase ○ A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of microfilaments) forms to pinch the cells into two parts ○ Two daughter cells exist In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis occur together 32. Know the types of tissues and examples of each Tissues ○ Groups of cells with similar structure and function ○ Epithelial tissue (epithelium)  Body coverings, Body Linings, Glandular tissue ○ Connective tissue Bone, Cartilage, Blood Tendons & ligaments (Dense connective) Areolar, Adipose, Reticular (Loose connective) ○ Muscle tissue Skeletal- Attached to the skeleton and pull on bones or skin Cardiac- Found only in the heart & pumps blood through blood vessels Smooth- Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach, uterus, and blood vessels ○ Nervous tissue Brain, spinal cord, nerves 33. Know what cell accounts for the majority of blood volume Erythrocyte (red blood cell) 34. Know another name for the skin Cutaneous membrane (skin) 35. Know the difference between types of muscle tissue and where they are found Three types of muscle tissue ○ Skeletal  ○ Cardiac ○ Smooth Skeletal muscle tissue ○ Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal muscle, which are attached to the skeleton and pull on bones or skin ○ Voluntary (consciously) controlled ○ Produces gross body movements or facial expressions ○ Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells are.. Striations (stripes) Multinucleate (more than one nucleus) Long, cylindrical shape Cardiac muscle tissue ○ Involuntary controlled ○ Found only in the heart ○ Pumps blood through blood vessels ○ Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells Striations One nucleus per cell Short, branching cells Intercalated discs contain gap junctions to connect cells together Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue ○ Involuntarily controlled  ○ Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach, uterus, and blood vessels ○ Peristalsis, a wavelike motion, is a typical activity ○ Characteristics of smooth muscle cells No visible striations One nucleus per cell Spindle-shaped cells 36. Know the parts of the hair Hair ○ Located body-wide expect for palms, soles, nipples, lips ○ Produced by hair follicle ○ Root is enclosed in the follicle ○ Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin ○ Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells ○ Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color ○ Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum basale Hair anatomy ○ Central medulla ○ Cortex surrounds medulla ○ Cuticle on outside of cortex Most heavily keratinized region of the hair ○ Melanin provides color  Associated hair structures ○ Hair follicle Composed of an inner epithelial root sheath and an outer fibrous sheath Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb (deepest part of hair follicle) Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull hairs upright when we are cold or frightened 37. Know the layers of the epidermis Summary of strata (layers) of the epidermis from deepest to most superficial ○ Stratum basale ○ Stratum spinosum ○ Stratum granulosum ○ Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only) ○ Stratum corneum 38. Know what contributes to skin color Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes; Color is yellow to brown to black 39. Know the types of burns First-degree burn (superficial burn) ○ Only epidermis is damaged  ○ Skin is red and swollen Second-degree burn (superficial partial-thickness burn) ○ Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged ○ Skin is red, painful, and blistered ○ Regrowth of the epithelium can occur Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn) ○ Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless ○ Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible ○ Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn) ○ Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons) ○ Appears dry and leathery ○ Requires surgery and grafting ○ May require amputation 40. Know what causes hair color Melanocytes 41. Know the parts of the nail Free edge Body is the visible attached portion  Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the nail; the cuticle is the proximal edge Root of nail is embedded in the skin Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix of nail bed 42. Know how to recognize melanoma A = Asymmetry ○ Two sides of pigmented mole do not match B = Border irregularity ○ Borders of mole are not smooth C = Color ○ Different colors in pigmented area D = Diameter ○ Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter E = Evolution ○ One or more of the ABCD characteristics is evolving 43. Know the types of bones Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue 1. Compact Bone Dense, smooth, and homogeneous 2. Spongy Bone Small needlelike pieces of bone  Many open spaces Bones are classified on the basis of shape into 4 groups ○ Long ○ Flat ○ Short ○ Irregular 44. Know what bone formation is Bone formation and growth ○ Ossification is the process of bone formation ○ Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous membranes ○ Long bone growth involves two major phrases 45. Know what hormone is responsible for raising blood calcium Calcium ion regulation ○ Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Released when calcium ion levels in blood are low Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells) Osteoclasts break down bone and release calcium ions into the blood ○ Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) prompts calcium storage to bones by osteoblasts 46. Know what tissue covers joints Cartilage 47. Know the function of yellow and red marrow Medullary cavity ○ Cavity inside the shaft ○ Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults ○ Contains red marrow for blood cell formation until age 6 or 7 48. Know what collagen does for a bone Organic parts (collagen fibers) make bone flexible and have great tensile strength (stretch without breaking) 49. Know what determines where bone matrix will be remodeled Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone matrix to the outside of the diaphysis 50. Know the stages in healing of a bone fracture 51. Know what is unique about the hyoid bone Hyoid bone ○ Closely related to mandible and temporal bones ○ The only bone that does not articulate with another bone  ○ Serves as a movable base for the tongue ○ Aids in swallowing and speech 52. Know the curvatures of the spine and when they appear Primary curvatures ○ Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions ○ Present from birth ○ Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns Secretary curvatures ○ Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions ○ Develop after birth ○ Form an S-shaped curvature in adults 53. Know what decreases the risk for osteoporosis Diet, vitamin D and weight-bearing exercise 54. Know the differences between the male and female pelvis During puberty: ○ Female pelvis broadens ○ Entire male skeleton becomes more robust 55. Know why it is important for medical professionals to utilize anatomical position and terminology Medical professionals use Standard body position/terminology to avoid confusion 56. Know what homeostasis is and why it is important for survival Homeostasis–maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions  - A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance - Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life 57. Know which types of tissues heal faster and why Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than ragged tears of the tissue Muscular and epithelial tissues heals the fastest 58. Be able to identify the parts of a long bone Long bone anatomy ○ Diaphysis (shaft) Makes up most of bone’s length Composed of compact bone ○ Periosteum Outside covering of the diaphysis Fibrous connective tissue membrane Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure periosteum to underlying bone ○ Epiphysis (ends) Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed by thin layer of compact bone ○ Articular cartilage Covers the external surface of the epiphysis Made of hyaline cartilage Decreases friction at joint surfaces  ○ Epiphyseal line Remnant of the epiphyseal plate Seen in adult bones ○ Epiphyseal plate Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone ○ Endosteum Lines the inner surface of the shaft Made of connective tissue ○ Medullary cavity Cavity inside the shaft Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults Contains red marrow for blood cell formation until age 6 or 7 59. Know the functions of the skeletal system Support the body Protection of soft organs ○ Skull and vertebrae protect brain and spinal cord ○ Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs Allow moment via attached muscles Store minerals and fats ○ Calcium and phosphorus ○ Fat in the internal marrow cavity  Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) 60. Know the different types of fractures, how to recognize them and who they are common for Types of bone fractures ○ Closed (simple) fracture is a break that does not penetrate the skin ○ Open (compound) fracture is a broken bone that penetrates through the skin Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization ○ Closed reduction: bones are manually coaxed into position by physician’s hands ○ Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wired during surgery 61. Know the difference between the axial and appendicular skeleton Forms the longitudinal axis of the body Divided into 3 parts ○ 1. Skull (head) ○ 2. Vertebral column (spine) ○ 3. Bony thorax (rib cage+sternum) Appendicular Skeleton Composed of 126 bones ○ Limbs (appendages) ○ Pectoral girdle  ○ Pelvic girdle 62. Know what the epiphyseal plate and epiphyseal line is and what each represents and is composed of Epiphyseal line ○ Remnant of the epiphyseal plate ○ Seen in adult bones Epiphyseal plate ○ Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone ○ Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone 63. Know the stages of healing in a bone fracture Repair of bone fractures involves four major events ○ Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or bruise) is formed ○ Fibrocartilage callus forms Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the broken bone ○ Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in ○ Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical stresses 64. Know the difference between a simple and compound fracture Types of bone fractures ○ Closed (simple) fracture is a break that does not penetrate the skin  ○ Open (compound) fracture is a broken bone that penetrates through the skin 65. Know what fontanels are and their function Fetal skull ○ Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones Known as “soft spots” Allow skull compression during birth Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and infancy Usually ossify by 2 years of age 66. Know what is unique about C1 and C2 vertebrae Connects head to spine & allows a wide range of neck motion 67. Know the causes of osteoporosis Older adults ○ Osteoporosis Bone-thinning disease afflicting: 50% of women over age 65 20% of men over age 70 Disease makes bones fragile, and bones can easily fracture Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as “dowager’s hump”)  Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female skeleton 68. Know the types of joints and how to recognize them Two ways joints are classified ○ Functionally Structurally Functional joint classification ○ Synarthroses Immovable joints ○ Amphiarthrosis Slightly movable joints ○ Diarthroses Freely movable joints Structural joint classifications ○ Fibrous joints Generally immovable ○ Cartilaginous joints Immovable or slightly movable ○ Synovial joints Freely movable Fibrous joints ○ Bones are united by fibrous tissue ○ Types  Sutures Immobile Syndesmosis Allow more movement than sutures but still immobile Found on the distal ends of tibia and fibula Gomphoses Immobile Found where the teeth meet the facial bones Cartilaginous joints ○ Bones are connected by fibrocartilage ○ Types Synchondrosis Immobile Found in epiphyseal plates of growing long bones Symphysis Slightly movable Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints Synovial joints ○ Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity ○ Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity ○ 4 distinguishing features of synovial joints 1. Articular cartilage 2. Articular capsule  3. Joint cavity 4. Reinforcing ligaments Synovial joints ○ Bursae–flattened fibrous sacs Lined with synovial membranes Filled with synovial fluid Not actually part of the joint 69. Know the difference between compact and spongy bone Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue 1. Compact Bone Dense, smooth, and homogeneous 2. Spongy Bone Small needlelike pieces of bone Many open spaces 70. Know what Rickets is and what causes it Rickets is a preventable disease that causes bones to soften and weaken in children. Caused by a lack of vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus 71. Know how many bones are in the body - There are 206 bones in the human body 72. Know how many bones are in each vertebral section 26 vertebral bones are separated by intervertebral discs ○ 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck ○ 12 thoracic vertebrae are associated with the lower back ○ 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back ○ Sacrum (formed by fusion of 4 vertebrae) ○ Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3-5 vertebrae) 73. Know how many pairs of ribs you have - 12 pairs of ribs - True ribs (pairs 1-7 - False ribs (pairs 8-12) - Floating ribs (pairs 11-12) 74. Know the abnormal curvatures of the spine Scoliosis, Kyphosis, and Lordosis 75. Know the function of synovial fluid Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity; Synovial joints are filled with Synovial fluid lubricates and cushions the joints in your body, allowing bones to move smoothly without rubbing together 76. Know what connects bone to bone Ligaments