ITP Prelims - Introduction to Psychology PDF

**Section-1: The Roots of Psychology and its Emergence as a Science** **1.1 Meaning and Origin of the Word 'Psychology'** Psychology comes from Greek word **'psyche'** that means **'mind' or 'soul'**, and **'logos'** means **'study or 'line of teaching'**; thus, we have **'the study of mind'**. It...

**Section-1: The Roots of Psychology and its Emergence as a Science** **1.1 Meaning and Origin of the Word 'Psychology'** Psychology comes from Greek word **'psyche'** that means **'mind' or 'soul'**, and **'logos'** means **'study or 'line of teaching'**; thus, we have **'the study of mind'**. It **symbolizes** the second to the last Greek letter, **Psi (Ψ).** **1.2 Definition of Psychology** "**Psychology** is the **scientific** study of **behavior** and **mental processes**." - **What is Science**? Psychology uses **systematic methods** to study behavior and mental processes. Psychology's methods are not casual. They are carefully planned and conducted. It prevents possible biases from leading to faulty observation. NOTE: Hindi tayo pwedeng magrely merely sa observations natin, dapat meron tayong scientific evidence that is why psychology is a science. - Starts with a question (how or why) - Proposes a hypothesis-a tentative explanation. - Hypothesis must align with a scientific theory (broad evidence-support) - Test the hypothesis through observations or experiments. - Results are shared for replication and further study. **Psychology is EMPIRICAL in nature** - Based on MEASURABLE and OBSERVABLE DATA - What is the meaning of **behavior**? Behavior is everything we do that can be directly observed-two people kissing, a baby crying, sneezing are examples. Behavior refers to the actions, reactions, or responses of an organism-to internal or external stimuli. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including observable physical movements, cognitive processes, and emotional expressions. - Can be observed and measured - How someone acts or behave - Outward or overt actions and reactions (external) **Overt (seen directly)** -- refers to actions that can be directly observed, such as speaking, walking, or eating. These behaviors are the primary focus of objective psychological studies, particularly in behaviorism. **Covert (indirectly observed)** -- refers to mental processes, such as thinking, dreaming, and feeling, which cannot be directly observed. Instead, they are inferred from observable actions, self-reports, and neurobiological data, making them essential in cognitive and neuropsychological research. **Conscious** -- occurs within a person\'s awareness and is intentionally performed. Examples include decision-making, problem-solving, and voluntary movements. **Unconscious** -- the part of the mind which is inaccessible to the conscious mind but which affects behavior and emotions (unaware). **Rational** (normal behavior) -- logical, socially, and culturally accepted actions. **Irrational** (strange or weird behavior) -- refers to actions that appear irrational or deviate from social norms. These behaviors may be linked to psychological disorders, stress, or cultural differences in behavior interpretation. **Voluntary** -- is controlled by the somatic nervous system, which regulates skeletal muscles responsible for conscious movements like walking, writing, and speaking. **Involuntary** -- is governed by the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary processes such as heart rate, digestion, and reflex actions. This type of behavior is crucial in neurobiology as it influences emotional responses, stress reactions, and physiological survival mechanisms. **Nervous System** 1. Central Nervous System 2. Peripheral Nervous System 1. **Central Nervous System** - Brain - Spinal Cord 2. **Peripheral Nervous System** - Somatic Nervous System - Autonomic Nervous System **2.A Somatic Nervous System** - Cranial Nerves - Spinal Nerves - Process sensory information & controls the voluntary muscle movements **2.B Autonomic Nervous System** - Sympathetic Nervous - Parasympathetic Nervous System (Controls the other muscles & visceral organs) - What is mind and **mental processes**? Mental processes are the thoughts, feelings and motives that each of us experiences privately, but which cannot be observed directly. Mental processes are the internal, cognitive functions that occur within the mind. They are responsible for how we think, perceive, remember, and feel. Mental processes cannot be directly observed, but they can be studied through indirect methods, such as experiments, brain imaging, and self-reports. Mental processes involve internal experiences such as: - Thinking -- Problem-solving, decision-making, and reasoning. - Memory -- Storing and recalling information. - Perception experiences -- How individuals interpret sensory - Emotions -- Feelings such as happiness, sadness, or anxiety. - Internal, covert, activity of our minds - What we feel (emotions) - Basis of our actions, decisions 3. **Goals of Psychology** **1. Describe** -- Observe behavior and describe, often in minute detail, what was observed as objectively as possible. It addresses the question, "What is happening?" and "How do people think, feel, and act in various situations?" **2. Explain** --While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond what is obvious and explain their observations. In other words, "Why did the subject do what he or she did? Why did this behavior occur? Which factors influenced this outcome?" are treated under explanation. - Theory -- general explanation of a set of observation or facts. **3. Predict --** Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate what will happen in the future. There's an old saying, which very often holds true: \"the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior.\" **4. Control** -- How can it be changed? Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the future, we can exert control over it. Main goal is to improve life in a positive manner, aiming to control behavior and prevent it from worsening, despite not always being the case. **1.4 The Emergence of Psychology as a** **Science** **1.4.1. The Beginning -- Pre-Scientific Psychology** **Rene Descartes (1596-1650)** - Interactive Dualism - Mind & Body The interaction of mind and body, he believed, took place in the brain and the seat of the mind was narrowed down to the pineal gland, a structure in the brain which serves to initiate hormonal activity. **John Lock and Thomas Hobbes (17^th^ century)** **Mental life**, they contended, was composed of **'ideas'** which **arose from sensory experience** and **entered the mind by means of perception.** In **contrast to Descartes**, who believed that **some ideas are present at birth**, the empiricists saw the **development of the mind** as **arising from experiences of and interaction with the environment**. **Group of German Psychologists (19^th^ century)** -- Their findings greatly impacted psychology as we know it today. - **Weber** who used **weights to study muscle sense** - **Helmholz (1982**) who made an outstanding contribution to the **study of vision & hearing** - **Fechner (1985**) who investigated visual **discrimination and perception.** **Scientific Psychology** In **1879,** **Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.** This event heralded the beginning psychology as a scientific discipline in its own right. - Psychology had generally been regarded as a branch of philosophy. - Hence, **credit for the establishment of psychology as a science** usually goes to **Wilhelm Von Wundt (1932-1920)** considered by many as the **"father of psychology."** 1**.4.2. The Early Schools of Psychology** - **Schools of thought** are known as the **schools of Psychology.** - Schools, in this context, can best be thought of as groups of psychologists who held common beliefs about both the subject matter of psychology and what methods of study should be used. **A. Structuralism** Focused on the **structure and basic elements of the mind** (Wundt believed that psychology should focus on the elementary processes of conscious experience and that the structure of consciousness could be broken down into basic elements, much like how chemistry describes the composition of substances such as water or air). - Inspired by the pioneering work of Fechner and other scientists - **Wilhelm Wundt** and his collaborators founded the school of structuralism and it was extended and developed by **Edward Titchener** - It declined in the early **1920s.** **Goals of Structuralism** The primary aim of structuralists was to **identify the basic units or elements that make up the mind.** They proposed three main components of mental experience: 1. **Sensations** - Basic sensory experiences (e.g., sights, sounds, tastes, smells, touch). 2. I**mages** - Mental representations of experiences not currently present. 3. **Feelings** - Emotional responses such as love, fear, and joy. **Methodology: Introspection** - To study consciousness systematically, structuralists developed introspection, a **technique in which individuals reported their own mental experiences in response to a specific object or event.** - This process was conducted in a pre-specified and systematic manner. Required extensive training to ensure accuracy. The method of **introspection faced several challenges:** - **Lack of consistency** - Different laboratories reported conflicting findings. - **Subjectivity** - Mental processes were harder to observe than physical reactions in chemistry. - **Difficulty in replication** - Reaching a consensus on fundamental mental elements was nearly impossible. Example: A person describing a flower would analyze its shape, size, color, and texture in detail. NOTE: It was subjective because if someone asks us what do we feel about sunset, we have different answer because we have our own feelings and emotions. **Wilhelm Wundt** - Germany in 1879 - Developed the technique of objective introspection -- process of objectively examining and measuring one's thoughts and mental activities. **Eddward Titchener** - Wundt's student; brought structuralism to America **B. Functionalism** - Functionalism emerged as a response to structuralism, shifting the focus from the structure of mental activity to the **purpose and functions of mental processes.** - Functionalists sought to understand **how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment**. - How the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play (inspired by C.D.). The work and ideas of Charles Darwin had a monumental impact on the emergence of functional psychology. His theory of evolution provided an account of the way living organisms change and develop over time through a process of natural selection. - Favorable characteristics are passed on to future generations, leading to adaptation and evolution over time. **William James -- proposed functionalism** W. J., the leading functionalist, was greatly influenced by Darwin\'s theory. He believed that: - The **function of consciousness is to help humans adapt to their environment for survival**. - Adaptive behaviors, when repeated frequently, become habits, providing stability and predictability in society. - Functionalism should explore emotions and the concept of self in addition to consciousness. **Methodology** - Functionalists, like structuralists, utilized i**ntrospection**, but they also encouraged: - **Experimentation** to study behavior and mental processes. Comparative psychology, which examines similarities and differences between species to understand adaptive behaviors. Functionalism expanded the scope of psychology, influencing later schools of thought such as behaviorism and applied psychology. Its emphasis on adaptation and purpose continues to shape modern psychological research. NOTE: Functionalism is digging deeper about what we see like "why do we see sunset?" it's more on finding purpose. **C. Behaviorism** - Behaviorism emerged as a major school of psychology through the work of **John B. Watson** (1878-1958). Other influential behaviorists include **Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner.** - The science of behavior that focuses on **observable behavior only**. - Based much from work of Ivan Pavlov who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned (learned) - **Watson believed that phobias were learned.** -- case of "Little Albert" -- taught to fear a white rat **Core Principles of Behaviorism** - Behaviorists di**d not deny the existence of mind and consciousness** but saw them **as unobservable and scientifically unhelpful.** - They believed **in studying measurable behavior** rather than subjective mental states. - Emphasized the importance of **experimentation and systematic observation.** **Impact and Contributions** - Watson\'s approach was criticized for being too mechanistic and oversimplified. - However, his emphasis on objective, testable hypotheses and scientific methods helped establish psychology as a more **empirical discipline**. - His work laid the foundation for later developments in behavioral psychology, including operant conditioning (Skinner) and learning theory (Thorndike). In his 1913 an influential paper, "Psychology as the behaviorist views it", Watson attacked the structuralist emphasis on consciousness and mental experience and also condemned the use of introspection as unreliable and unscientific. Argued that psychology should focus only on observable behavior, which can be measured objectively. Insisted that psychologists should avoid terms like consciousness, mental states, and imagery. NOTE: kaya nating turuan ang sarili natin to fear or love something depends on what we experience in our environment (ex. kapag may reward ka tuwing mataas grades mo). **D. Psychoanalysis** - Psychoanalysis was developed by **Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)** and is based on the **concept of the unconscious mind.** **Freud\'s Key Insights** - Freud developed his theory while treating psychiatric patients whose symptoms had no clear physiological cause. - He believed that irrational and self-defeating behaviors (e.g., phobias, conversion hysterias) could not be fully explained by scientific laws or physiology. - He argued that human behavior is driven by powerful unconscious motives that influence conscious thoughts and actions. Freud's patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical cause. - He proposed that there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires. - He believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created nervous disorders. - He stressed the importance of early childhood experiences. **The Iceberg Model of the Mind** Freud compared the mind to an iceberg, where: - The **conscious mind** (what we are aware of) is just the tip of the iceberg. - The **unconscious mind** (hidden urges, desires, and conflicts) is the vast, submerged portion beneath the surface. - Unconscious thoughts influence daily life, revealing themselves in dreams, slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), apparent accidents, and jokes. **Methods of Psychoanalysis** Psychoanalysts aim to **interpret hidden meanings behind an individual\'s thoughts**, **behavior, and emotions**. Their methods include: 1. **Free Association** - The client says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or irrelevant. 2. **Dream Analysis** - The psychoanalyst interprets the symbolic content of the client\'s dreams. 3. **Transference** - The client projects or displaces feelings onto the analyst, revealing unconscious conflicts. 4. **Observation of Behavior** - Analysts study posture, fantasies, and subtle interactions with the therapist. **Challenges of Psychoanalysis** - The process is **often difficult, time-consuming, and subjective.** - Unlike behaviorism, it lacks a clear scientific basis and is harder to test empirically. Many early psychological schools, such as Structuralism, Functionalism, and Gestalt Psychology, have disappeared, though their ideas remain influential. Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis, however, continue to influence modern psychology, albeit in modified forms. NOTE: Dito inaakala natin na ang mga bagay, thoughts, or feelings that affects us negatively and maging aware sa root ng ating nararamdaman or pinagdadaanan. **E. Gestalt Psychology** - The leading proponents: **Max Wertheimer** (1880-1943), **Kurt Koffka** (1876- 1941) and **Wolfgang Kohler** (1887 -1967) - Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive psychology -- a field focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving. **Core Principles** - **Holistic Perception**: Gestalt psychologists argued that **people perceive the world in wholes** rather than as a collection of individual parts. The famous phrase **\"The whole is greater than the sum of its parts\" captures this idea.** - The German word **\"Gestalt**\" translates to **form, whole, configuration, or pattern**. **Critique of Other Schools** - **Against Structuralism**: Gestaltist\'s opposed the atomist approach of breaking down mental processes into basic elements. - **Against Behaviorism**: They also rejected behaviorists\' disregard for conscious experience, focusing instead on subjective perception and organization. **Focus of Study** - The Gestaltists maintained that the **mind arises from the whole pattern** of **sensory activity** and **the relationships within this pattern.** - Their emphasis was on **understanding conscious experience holistically**, particularly in areas of perception, memory, and thinking. **Methodology and Criticism** - Gestalt psychologists relied on subjective observations and reports of conscious experience. - This approach drew criticism from behaviorists, who favored more controlled and objective methods. **Influence and Legacy** - Despite criticism, Gestalt psychology has had a significant impact on the fields of perception and problem solving within contemporary psychology. - Their ideas contributed to understanding how humans naturally organize sensory information into meaningful patterns and wholes. NOTE: For example, may lumapit na chismis satin, we tend to seek for the whole story pattern than relying on infos given or being one-sided. **History of Psychology in the Philippines** **Early Development (17th - 20th Century)** **Introduction of Psychology in Higher Education** - Psychology was introduced in the **17th century** through **course**s taught at the **University of San Carlos (USC) in Cebu** and the **University of Santo Tomas (UST**). It was initially **part of Philosophy** and **Theology**, taught within religious institutions. **Formal Recognition as a Discipline** - **1926** -- Psychology as separate subject from Philosophy. - **UP** **established** its **Department of Psychology**, marking **Psychology as an independent academic discipline in the country.** - **UST** became the **first institution to offer undergraduate** (B.S.), **Master\'s**, and **Doctoral degrees in Psychology**, paving the way for formalized psychology education. **Pioneers of Psychology in the Philippines** **Agustin Alonzo** **-- First psychologist to head the UP Department of Psychology**. Instrumental in **shaping psychology as an academic field** in the country. **Sinforoso Padilla** -- **First Filipino to complete a psychology degree from undergraduate to doctorate level**. A **founder** of the **Guidance Movement in the Philippines.** **Jesus Perpiñan** -- **Established** the Far Eastern University **(FEU) Psychological Clinic**, **providing one of** the **first professional psychological services in the country.** **Angel de Blas** -- **Founded the Experimental Psychology Laboratory at UST**, **advancing** the **study of behavior through controlled experiments.** **Estefania Aldaba-Lim** -- **First Filipino** to **earn a Ph.D**. in **Clinical Psychology** from the **University of Michigan**. Became a **leading advocate for mental health in the Philippines.** **Alfredo Lagmay** -- **Served as Chairman** of the **UP Department of Psychology** for **22 years.** A **key figure** in **experimental psychology and research.** **Jaime Bulatao, S.J.** -- **Established** the **Department of Psychology at Ateneo de Manila University**, promoting **Filipino psychology (Sikolohiyang Pilipino) and counseling psychology**. **Early Psychological Practices in the Philippines** The **practice of psychology in the Philippines** initially **focused on three main areas:** 1. **Psychological Testing** - Used primarily in education and clinical settings for intelligence and personality assessment. 2. **Counseling Psychology** - Developed as part of the guidance movement to help individuals with academic and personal concerns. 3. **Clinical Psychology** - Addressed mental health issues through psychological assessments and therapy. **Modern Developments in Filipino Psychology** **Growth of Psychology as a Science and Profession** - The **Philippine Psychological Corporation (PPC**) was **established in 1962** to **provide psychological assessments and services**. - The **Psychological Association of the Philippines (PAP**) was founded in **1962**, setting **ethical and professional standards for Filipino psychologists**. - In **1975**, **Virgilio Enriquez developed** **Sikolohiyang Pilipino** (Filipino Psychology), **emphasizing indigenous Filipino values** and **cultural perspectives in psychological practice**. **Legal Recognition of Psychology in the Philippines** - The **Psychology Law of 2009 (RA 10029) officially recognized psychology** as a **regulated profession**, **requiring licensure for psychologists and psychometricians**. **Current Trends and Practices** - **Expansion of psychology** into **forensic psychology, industrial-organizational psychology,** and **community psychology.** - **Growing** focus on **mental health advocacy**, particularly with the passage of the **Mental Health Act (RA 11036) in 2018**. Increased **integration of technology** in **psychological research and practice**, including **teletherapy** and **online counseling**. **Section 2: Theory, Methods and Sub-fields of Psychology** **2.1 Theoretical Perspectives of Psychology** **A. The Physiological Perspective** - This perspective **explains behavior through biological processes**, **emphasizing the role of the brain**, **nervous system**, and **hormonal influences.** - Psychologists in this field, such as **biopsychologists** and **neuropsychologists**, **study how the brain and nervous system influence thoughts, emotions, and behavior**. - Recent research has **expanded** our **understanding of the nervous** and **hormonal systems** and their **impact on mental activity.** **B. The Behaviorist Perspective** - Behaviorism **focuses on how the environment shapes behavior through learning and experience**, **disregarding internal mental processe**s. - Rooted in the works of Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Hull, behaviorism highlights conditioning as a key mechanism of learning. - This perspective was **highly influential in psychology** during the **early 20th** **century.** **C. The Cognitive Perspective** - This perspective **contrasts with both behaviorism and psychoanalysis** by **emphasizing internal mental processes** such as **perception, memory, problem-solving, and language.** - **Cognitive psychologists** argue that **studying mental processes is essential for understanding behavior**. Though these processes are **not directly observable**, they can be inferred through **scientific experiments and empirical data**. - One of its **major contributions** is the **understanding of how thoughts influence emotions and actions**. **D. The Socio-Cultural Perspective** - This perspective **examines how social and cultural factors shape behavior, thoughts, and emotions.** - People often underestimate the influence of cultural norms, group dynamics, and social roles. - Social psychologists study group behavior, authority influence, and interpersonal interactions. - Cultural psychologists explore **how cultural rules and values affect human development and emotions**. **E. The Psychodynamic Perspective** - This **approach focuses on the role of unconscious motivations**, **childhood experiences**, and **internal conflicts in shaping personality and behavior**. - Originating from Freud\'s psychoanalytic theory, it has since evolved through contributions from Neo-Freudians like Carl Jung, Adler, and Anna Freud. - Common themes include **unconscious desires, biological instincts vs. societal norms, and early family influences**. **F. The Humanistic Perspective** - Emerging as a **response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism**, this **perspective views humans as free. growth-oriented individuals**. - Prominent figures like **Carl Rogers** and **Abraham Maslow** **emphasize self-actualization and personal fulfillment**. - Humanistic psychology **values subjective experiences and rejects strict scientific methods in studying human behavior.** - It has **influenced psychotherapy and self-help movements**, focusing on **personal growth and maximizing human potential**.