ITP Chapter 1 PDF

GENERAL CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Learning objectives: At the end of the discussion, the students are expected to:  To define and explain the discipline and be able to give the different fields of Psychology and its practice;  To discuss the historical development of the discipline both...

GENERAL CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Learning objectives: At the end of the discussion, the students are expected to:  To define and explain the discipline and be able to give the different fields of Psychology and its practice;  To discuss the historical development of the discipline both in the West and in the Philippines;  To distinguish the different schools of thought in Psychology and approaches taken by those schools of thought; and  To describe the methodologies used in psychological research Definition of Psychology The word psychology was coined at a time when the concepts of soul and mind were not as clearly distinguished. Psyche - mind, soul, or spirit Logos - discourse; study The scientific study of mind and behavior. Goals of Psychology  To describe behavior. Gaining a better perspective on what is considered normal and abnormal.  To explain behavior. Emergence of theories.   To predict behavior. Understanding the underlying causes of our actions.  To change / control behavior. Influence to make constructive and lasting changes in people. HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY It was not until the late 1800s that psychology became accepted as its own academic discipline. Before this time, the workings of the mind were considered under the auspices of philosophy. Given that any behavior is, at its roots, biological, some areas of psychology take on aspects of a natural science like biology. However, no biological organism exists in isolation, and our behavior is influenced by our interactions with others. Therefore, psychology is also a social science. FUNCTIONALISM William James (1842–1910), who was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment. Functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts. FREUD AND THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967). The word Gestalt roughly translates to “whole;” a major emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception. PAVLOV AND BEHAVIORISM Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus. WATSON AND BEHAVIORISM Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism. SKINNER AND BEHAVIORISM B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. Skinner developed a chamber that allowed the careful study of the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment. HUMANISM Humanism is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. Carl Rogers (1902–1987) used a therapeutic technique known as client centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry. Re-incorporation of mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior. VIRGILIO ENRIQUEZ AND SIKOLOHIYANG PILIPINO It was in the early 1970s when Virgilio Gaspar Enriquez returned to the Philippines from the USA and introduced the concept of Sikolohiyang Pilipino. Together with Dr. Alfredo V. Lagmay, he embarked on research into the historical and cultural roots of Philippine Psychology. Subsequently, the research included identifying indigenous concepts and approaches in Philippine psychology and developing creativity and inventiveness among Filipinos. INFLUENTIAL PERSON IN THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY Aristotle - one of the earliest writers to devote attention to Psychology and he used the word psyche to refer to the essence of life. St. Augustine - observed the behavior of the young infants and crowds in the chariot races and one of the pioneers of the practice of introspection. Rene Descartes – coined the concept of reflex action or a sudden and involuntary response to stimuli. Gustav Fechner - formulated an equation that appeared to measure sensation known as the Weber-Fechner Law. Hermann Helmholtz - measured the speed of the nerve, set forth the theory of color, and offered an explanation for the perception of musical tones. Friedrich Bessel - established the “personal equation” among astronomers which described the differences in reaction time. Sir Francis Galton - invented the statistical techniques of correlation and developed the index called correlation coefficient. Hermann Ebbinghaus - studies learning and memory and coined the learning curve and spacing effect. Charles Darwin - formulated the theory of evolution and individual differences. Anton Mesmer - prominent in the field of hypnotism. PROMINENT AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION IN PSYCHOLOGY BIOPSYCHOLOGY Biopsychology explores how our biology influences our behavior. Biological psychologists want to understand how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior. The research interests of biological psychologists span a number of domains, including but not limited to, sensory and motor systems, neurodevelopment, plasticity of the nervous system, and biological correlates of psychological disorders. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions. Cognitive psychologists have research interests that span a spectrum of topics, ranging from attention to problem solving to language to memory. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental psychology is the scientific study of development across a lifespan. Developmental psychologists are interested in processes related to physical maturation, changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes. PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY Personality psychology focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique. Research is focused on identifying personality traits, measuring these traits, and determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given situation. Personality traits are relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Social psychology focuses on how we interact with and relate to others. Social psychologists conduct research on a wide variety of topics that include differences in how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts. INDUSTRIALORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings. I-O psychologists are often involved in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY Health psychology focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. Health psychologists are interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, and research. Conduct research that explores the relationship between one’s genetic makeup, patterns of behavior, relationships, psychological stress, and health. SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY Researchers in sport and exercise psychology study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY Clinical psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY Forensic psychology is a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system. Involved in providing psychological treatment within the criminal justice system. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES CLINICAL OR CASE STUDIES This approach is often used when studying individuals who are interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic. Allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its natural context: observing behavior in its natural setting. The researchers maintain their distance and avoid interfering with the participants so as not to influence their natural behaviors. SURVEYS Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally. Surveys allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be afforded by other research methods. ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Use existing records to answer various research questions. Archival research relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships. LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. In cross-sectional research, a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time. ACTIVITY: Answer the following questions: 1. How do the different schools of thought contribute to the development of modern psychology? 2. What do you think are the unique Filipino traits that we have that stands out from other nationalities? 3. Think of another field where psychology could have a vital role. Explain your answer.