Introduction to Psychology Course Slides (Fall 2024) PDF

Introduction to Psychology Course Slides – Part 1 PROFESSOR GREGORY GRESKO (OFFICE: W 19 ROOM 215, HOURS WED THU 1330-1530 & BY APPOINTMENT) ENDICOTT COLLEGE OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES WOOSONG UNIVERSITY TO CONTACT ME AT ANY TIME, IT’S BEST TO USE MY E-MAIL: [email protected] Lesson 1...

Introduction to Psychology Course Slides – Part 1 PROFESSOR GREGORY GRESKO (OFFICE: W 19 ROOM 215, HOURS WED THU 1330-1530 & BY APPOINTMENT) ENDICOTT COLLEGE OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES WOOSONG UNIVERSITY TO CONTACT ME AT ANY TIME, IT’S BEST TO USE MY E-MAIL: [email protected] Lesson 1.1 (Week 1, Session 1) 1. Add your registration name NOW to Google Classroom. The professor will provide you the Google Classroom code now. 2. Let’s review the … RULES OF THE GAME (see Google Classroom file) Lesson 1.1 (Week 1, Session 1) ❖ Review of Syllabus – We will follow the course syllabus closely, while I also will engage our discussion based on questions of student interest. ❖ Look through Google Classroom at all posted homework (HW) assignments and required reading materials. New items or updates may be added at any time and will be announced on the Google Classroom Stream thread. ❖ All important documents are indicated at the TOP of the Classroom thread. Please note that Week 1 starts at the BOTTOM of the Classroom thread and works upward. ❖ Required Observation 1 and Observation 2 ❖ Opportunities for bonus work through 6 December 2024 ❖ Professor’s teaching philosophy & philosophy for learning ❖ Need for personal discipline and keeping pace – Review, review the slides each week! ❖ HW for Week 1: PERSONAL INTRODUCTION PAGE (see Google Classroom) ❖ Professor Introduction & Student Introductions ❖ Name, City / Country of Origin, Year and Area of Study (Major), something you like and something you hate The History of Psychology Objectives ❖ Define psychology and identify early milestones in the field ❖ Compare and contrast different psychological perspectives ❖ Identify subfields of psychology ❖ Identify major historical figures in psychology ❖ What is psychology? Greek roots: Psyche: “mind” & Logos: “word, event, study” ❖ Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. ❖ Psychology has its foundation in philosophy & physiology Big Issues in Psychology 1. Person vs. Situation: behavior is internal or external? 2. Nature vs. Nurture: Inborn or upbringing? 3. Stability vs. Change: characteristics permanent or change over our lives? 4. Diversity vs. Universality: are all people the same, somewhat similar, or very different from others? 5. Mind vs. Body: how are they connected? Wilhelm Wundt: “The Father of Psychology” ❖ Declared psychology should be a “science”. ❖ Used empirical methods. ❖ Findings can be tested by using the scientific method. ❖ Focus for Wundt: consciousness (awareness of immediate experience) ❖ Wundt had a tremendous following in North America. ❖ He believed in structuralism: We understand human consciousness by looking at its underlying components. Identifying these basic components and how they operate together helps us to understand human behavior. Structuralism Structuralism identifies the parts that make up consciousness & the mind. Structuralism relies on introspection, or the process of reporting one’s own conscious mental experiences. William James – Functionalism Functionalism- A theory that emphasized the functions of consciousness and the ways consciousness helps people adapt to their environment. William James thought that psychology should explain how people adapted – or failed to adapt – to everyday life outside the laboratory. Structuralism vs. Functionalism (vs. = versus) Structuralism sought to analyze the adult mind (understood to be the sum total of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components, and then to find the way in which these components fit together in complex forms. Functionalism denies the principle of introspection. Rather, it tries to understand the biological processes of the human consciousness. It focuses on the purpose (or function) of human consciousness and how it leads to adaptive behavior. Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis Freudian Psychology Psychoanalysis says that mental disorders result from conflicts of the unconscious mind. Freud thought that behavior came from unconscious drives, conflicts and experience that we may not even have a memory of. John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism John B. Watson argued that (behaviorism) psychology should only deal with observable and measurable events: ❖ stimuli from the environment and the organism’s response to that stimuli. ❖ Your actions are not a result of conscious decision ❖ Environment controls people ❖ Free will is an illusion Followed by the work of B.F. Skinner. These psychologists thought of the mind as a black box that could not be opened or understood. Since we could not understand it, we should not try to guess what role it plays in our actions. Humanistic Psychology Humanism – The theoretical view that emphasizes the unique qualities of human beings, especially freedom and the potential for personal growth. Humanism takes an optimistic view of human nature. It emphasizes the positive side of human nature. It has received a lot of criticism because it does not always use the scientific method but rather involves a lot of observation in combination with philosophical analysis. Cognitive View Our actions are a direct result of the way we process information from our environment. Cognitions are thoughts, expectations, perceptions, memories and states of consciousness. Evolutionary View Looks at an individual’s behaviors and thoughts through the lens of natural selection and evolution. In the evolutionary view, behavior is adaptive, hereditary and cultural. The study of genetics is not used to show how people are different, but instead to understand the ways in which we have evolved. Biological Perspective The cause of behavior focuses on the functions of genes, the brain, the nervous system, etc. (etc. = et cetera = “and so on”) Breaking down complex attitudes and behaviors into their simpler structures and origins will help us to understand how humans work. Cultural Approaches in Psychology These approaches examine cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences in behavior. Research is often Western-based. Does it still apply to Eastern-based societies, such as here in Korea? Research is often done using only lower socio- economic (poorer) participants. Do research findings still apply to middle-class and upper- class (richer) participants? SUMMARY What determines Focus of Study behavior? Biological Heredity Brain Biomechanical processes Nervous system System processes Psychodynamic Heredity Unconscious drives Early life experiences Conflicts Behaviorist Environment Specific overt (outward) Stimulus conditions responses Humanistic Potentially self-directed Human experiences & potentials Cognitive Stimulus conditions Mental processes Mental process Language Evolutionary Adaptations for survival Evolved psychological adaptations Cultural Cultural norms Cross-cultural patterns of attitudes and behaviors Psychology vs. Psychiatry Psychiatry is a specialty in the medical field. Psychiatrists hold MDs (medical doctorate degrees) and have specialized training in the treatment of mental and behavioral problems. Subfields of Psychology Basic Research – These psychologists study research to create a knowledge base Examples: biological, developmental, cognitive, personality, and social psychologists Applied Research – These psychologists use research findings to tackle practical problems Examples: Industrial psychologists, organizational psychologists Counseling psychologists – Assist people with problems in living & achieving well- being Clinical Psychologists study, assess, & treat people with psychological disorders Psychiatry – A branch of medicine that can prescribe medicines as well as therapy Concluding remarks Summary of today’s material Homework (HW) for next class: ❖ Review and study our class slides carefully. Be sure you understand all vocabulary and concepts. Ask questions whenever you have them! ❖ Read the article “Why Study Psychology” & the “Top 10 Reasons” list afterwards. Write notes about your thoughts in answering the questions provided. Integrate your answers in the Personal Introduction Page that you must submit as homework on Google Classroom for Week 1. Lesson 2.1 (Week 2, Session 1) Reminder: Please only use mobile / cell phones during class time for approved uses. Violators will receive consequences as determined in the Rules of the Game... Brief review of previous class material – Questions on vocabulary / content Homework (HW) review: ❖ Review of the article “Why Study Psychology” & the “Top 10 Reasons” list afterwards. ❖ Groups of 2-3: Discuss your thoughts to these questions. ❖ Large group discussion of the questions. Psychology and Biology Everything psychological is simultaneously biological. To think, feel or act without a body would be like running without legs. We are bio-psycho-social systems. To understand our behavior, we need to study how biological, psychological and social systems interact. Chromosomes, Genes and DNA Every cell in the body carries a complete set of biological instructions for building the organism. We have 23 pairs of chromosomes. https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=zwibgNGe4aY Do all organisms have the same number of chromosomes? ❖ Some genes are dominant, while others are recessive. The genes for various features are like human codes that are passed down generationally to offspring and may be dominant or recessive depending on the union of male and female organisms generating a new organism. ❖ Combinations of dominant and recessive genes can make physical traits appear to skip generations, but your DNA is inherited exclusively from your parents, and theirs from their parents. The Brain, The Mind and Psychology ❖ The human brain is the most complex Relative Size of Human Brain system, natural or man made, in the world. ❖ About 1.35 kg, the size of a grapefruit ❖ Pinkish/grayish in color ❖ Contains ~100,000,000,000 (100 billion) nerve cells ❖ At a loss rate of 200,000 nerve cells per day during our adult lives, we still retain over 98% of our brain cells. Nerve Cells The Nervous System Nervous system Central Peripheral Nervous (brain and System spinal cord) Autonomic (controls Somatic (controls self-regulated action of voluntary movements of internal organs and glands) skeletal muscles) Sympathetic Parasympathetic (arousing) (calming) The Human Spinal Column The Human Brain The Human Brain The Limbic System The Cerebrum & Parts of the Human Brain Our Divided Brain The information highway from the eye to the brain Neural Communication Neurotransmission Neurons are cells in the brain that transmit and receive signals that enable processes such as thought / cognition. The presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter, which then activates receptors on a postsynaptic cell nearby. Neurotransmitters are signaling molecules that are released by the presynaptic neuron’s axon terminal and bind to and react with receptors found on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron close by. Typically, the axon of a neuron transmits the neurological impulse, and the dendrite of a neuron receives it. Neurotransmission PROCESS: How does it work? 1. Neurotransmitter synthesis can happen in the cell body, in the axon, or at the axon terminal. 2. Neurotransmitters are stored in storage granules or vesicles at the axon terminal. 3. Calcium enters the axon terminal during an action potential, and this ion movement causes the neurotransmitter to be released into the synaptic cleft/gap. 4. After being released, the neurotransmitter binds to and activates a receptor at the postsynaptic membrane. 5. The neurotransmitter is deactivated. It can be destroyed by enzyme proteins or return to its terminal of origin – where it can be reused, or degraded and removed. Neural Communication  All or Nothing ❖ Once the action potential is released, there is no going back. The axon either “fires” or it does not. ❖ How do we detect a gentle touch from a slap? A strong stimulus, like a slap, can trigger more neurons to fire, more often, but not any stronger. ❖ Squeezing a trigger harder won’t make the bullet go faster. Concluding remarks Review of today’s material Homework (HW) for next class: ❖ Review and study our class slides carefully. Be sure you understand all vocabulary, terms, and concepts. Ask questions whenever you need! ❖ Read the file “2.1 Case Studies” to get an introduction to reviewing case studies. Try to understand the situation that is happening, and think of ideas – from what you have studied and know from experience – that might help to answer the questions being asked. You do not need to write full answers, but instead take notes as you come up with ideas while thinking about the different situations. We are doing this exercise to get an initial feeling of working with case studies, and eventually, perhaps we’ll be able to find some good answers! Lesson 2.2 (Week 2, Session 2) Reminder: Please be sure to use the Attendance APP to check in for our class session (all time blocks). You need to do this in addition to signing in on the paper sign-in sheets. Thank you! Review of previous class material – Questions on vocabulary / content Homework (HW) review at the end of class, for a more effective consideration of the Case Studies presented. Neural Communication All-or-nothing principle – The toilet either flushes completely or not at all; it doesn’t flush a little or a lot. Direction of impulse – The toilet only flushes one way, the impulse can’t come from the other direction (you hope!). Refractory period – After you flush the toilet, it won’t flush again for a certain period of time, even if you push the handle repeatedly. Threshold – You can push the handle a little bit, but it won’t flush until you push the handle past a certain point (this corresponds to the level of excitatory neurotransmitters that a neuron must absorb before it will fire). Resting potential – The toilet is waiting to fire, and the water in the tank represents the overall negative charge inside the neuron waiting for depolarization. Action potential – Opening the flap in the tank and the water rushing through the pipes. Depolarization – represented by the toilet flushing. Action Potential A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. https://www.youtube.c om/watch?v=W2hHt_P Xe5o Depolarization & Hyperpolarization Depolarization occurs, when positive ions enter the neuron, making it more susceptible to fire an action potential. When negative ions enter the neuron making it less susceptible to fire, hyperpolarization occurs. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters Brain Matters The Brain in more detail Reptilian “Old” Brain Structures The Brainstem is the oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. It is responsible for automatic survival functions. Brainstem The Medulla is the base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing. The Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. Brainstem The Thalamus is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and Pons transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. The Pons functions as a bridge between regions and plays a role in sleep and arousal. Cerebellum The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance. It also plays a role in the formation of procedural memories (implicit or procedural memories, such as riding a bike). The Limbic System The Limbic System is a doughnut- shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum. It is associated with emotions such as fear, aggression, and drives for food and sex. It includes the hippocampus and the amygdala. Hippocampus  The hippocampus is a structure in the limbic system responsible for the regulation of new memories to old ones. Hippocampus Amygdala Amygdala Two almond- shaped neural clusters linked to emotion of fear and anger. Hypothalamus The Hypothalamus lies below (= hypo) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, the regulation of body temperature, and emotions. The Endocrine System The Endocrine System is the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands. Pituitary Gland Called the “master gland.” It releases hormones that regulate other glands. It also regulates water and salt balance. Pineal gland Secretes the hormone melatonin, which influences our sleep/wake cycle Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands Regulate metabolic and calcium rate. The 4 Cerebral Lobes: Frontal Lobe Concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions, and problem-solving. Temporal Lobe Concerned with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli (hearing) and memory (hippocampus). Occipital Lobe Located at the back of the brain, behind the parietal lobe and temporal lobe. Concerned with many aspects of vision. Parietal Lobe Concerned with perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain. Review of Case Studies - in small groups of 3 HW: Careful study of all notes and slides on Biopsychology. Lesson 3.1 (Week 3, Session 1) Reminder: Please be sure to use the Attendance APP to check in for our class session (all time blocks). You need to do this in addition to signing in on the paper sign-in sheets. Thank you! Quick overview of materials from our last class, and any questions? Review of Case Studies #2 -6 and a special new case Additional related news: Liam’s story (March 2023): https://gofund.me/753f54c5 Other news A common industrial chemical fueling Parkinson's disease? Sensation and Perception Sensation and Perception The Famous Mona Lisa…Frown or Smile? Sensation and Perception The Famous Mona Lisa…Frown or Smile? Sensation and Perception Thresholds Absolute Threshold ❖ minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time Difference Threshold ❖ minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time ❖ just noticeable difference (JND) Sensation and Perception Thresholds Weber’s Law Example: you whisper in a quiet room, but must shout to be heard in a loud room. Sensory adaptation Example: slowly turning the volume up in the car and not noticing until you get out, then return and the music sounds blaring. Sensation and Perception Vision Sensation and Perception Vision ❖ Pupil – adjustable opening in the center of the eye ❖ Iris – a ring of muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening ❖ Lens – transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina ❖ The retina’s reaction to light ❖ Optic nerve – nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain ❖ Blind Spot – the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind spot” because there are no receptor cells located there ❖ Fovea – central point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster A ganglion cell is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system). In this picture, we see retinal ganglion cells. Ganglia can be thought of as synaptic relay stations between neurons. Information enters the ganglia, excites the neuron in the ganglia, and then exits. The ganglia can be broadly categorized into two groups: sensory ganglia (relating to the somatic nervous system), and autonomic ganglia (relating to the autonomic nervous system. How the Eye Works Retina’s Reaction to Light: Receptors ❖ Rods ❖ detect black, white and gray ❖ twilight or low light ❖ Cones ❖ near center of retina ❖ fine detail and color vision ❖ daylight or well-lit conditions Vision: Receptors Receptors in the Human Eye Cones Rods Number 6 million 120 million Location in Center Periphery retina Sensitivity in Low High dim light Color sensitive? Yes No Wavelength (Hue) ❖ Hue (color) ❖ Wavelength ❖ the height ❖ thedistance from determines the the peak of one brightness/ wave to the next. dullness. Wavelength (Hue) Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red 400 nm 700 nm Short wavelengths Long wavelengths Different wavelengths of light result in different colors. Wavelength (Hue) Vision Vision ❖ Rods & cones → bipolar cells ❖ Bipolar cells + ganglion cells = optic nerve ❖ Where all ganglion cells meet = blind spot ❖ Nerve fibers split = optic chiasm ❖ Moves through Thalamus to different brain areas, largely the occipital lobe. Visual Information Processing Abstraction: Feature detection: Brain’s higher-level cells Brain’s detector cells respond to combined respond to elementary information from features-bars, edges, or feature-detector cells gradients of light Recognition: Retinal processing: Brain matches the Receptor rods and constructed image with Cones, bipolar cells, stored images ganglion cells Scene Visual Information Processing ❖ Feature Detectors Cell’s nerve cells that respond to responses specific features ❖ shape ❖ angle Stimulus ❖ movement Visual Information Processing ❖ Trichromatic (three color) Theory Young and Helmholtz 3 retinal color receptors ❖ red ❖ green ❖ blue Color-Deficient Vision People who suffer red-green blindness have trouble perceiving the number within the design. Color-Deficient Vision Some helpful visuals on color-deficient vision and possible remedy https://www.facebook.com/playgroundenglish/videos/304532586546745/ https://www.boredpanda.com/different-types-color-blindness-photos/ Audition ❖ Audition the sense of hearing ❖ Frequency the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time ❖ Pitch ❖ a tone’s highness or lowness ❖ depends on frequency Audition: The Ear ❖ Outer Ear ❖ Auditory Canal ❖ Eardrum ❖ Middle Ear ❖ hammer ❖ anvil ❖ stirrup ❖ Inner Ear ❖ oval window ❖ cochlea ❖ basilar membrane ❖ hair cells Audition ❖ Place Theory ❖ the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated ❖ Frequency Theory ❖ the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch ❖ Cochlea ❖ the spiral cavity of the inner ear that produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations PITCH AMPLITUDE Audition ❖ Conduction Hearing Loss ❖ hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea ❖ Nerve Hearing Loss ❖ hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve How We Locate Sounds Because we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other ear cause us to localize the sound. Let’s Get Dizzy! ❖ Stand up and find room. Spin until I tell you to stop. ❖ Do not hurt yourself or others! ❖ Why did you get dizzy? Smell Age, Sex and Sense of Smell Number Women and young adults of correct have best sense of smell answers 4 Women 3 Men 2 0 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 Age Group How do we taste? Are you a Supertaster? SuperTaster Normal Taster HypoTaster Papillae Density1 greater than 1/mm2 0.3-1.0/mm2 less than 0.3/mm2 Sex Distribution 35% women; 15% men Avoids Tolerates Indifferent/Likes Bitterness Adds lots of cream and sugar to Adds touch of cream and/or sugar to Prefers strong, dark coffee and drinks it (Coffee) coffee coffee black Saltiness Loves Likes Indifferent Spicy/Hot Avoids Likes Seeks-Out Unlikely Acquired Taste for Most Likely Alcohol "burns" and tastes like Somewhat Likely Alcoholic Spirits Alcohol tastes somewhat sweet gasoline Openness to Not very open Very open Culinary Moderate Experiences "Picky" eater Seeks-out bold/intense flavors Do you dare? Sweet Sour Umami (Fresh Chicken) Salty Bitter Pain Pain tells the body that something has gone wrong. Usually pain results from damage to the skin and other tissues. A rare disease exists in which the afflicted person feels no pain. [zzixx] 찍스｜요즘 이 감성이 SNS에서 통한다! (youtube.com) Ashley Blocker (right) feels neither pain nor extreme hot or cold. Pain Gate-Control Theory ❖ theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain ❖ “gate” opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers ❖ “gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain Biopsychosocial Influences Homework to prepare for Lesson 3.2 Study all of today’s slides carefully review. Think about how you see, hear, taste, smell, and experience feeling by touch. In what ways are you perceiving things in you and around you in new ways? Come to class next time ready to kick off our class with a fun discussion of our answers! Lesson 3.2 (Week 3, Session 2) Reminder: Please be sure to use the Attendance APP to check in for our class session (all time blocks). You need to do this in addition to signing in on the paper sign-in sheets. Thank you! Brief review of all materials from Lesson 3.1 on Sensation (Vision, Audition) Review of new materials on Smell, Taste, Touch (Pain) Questions on these materials? Homework review for today’s lesson Think about how you see, hear, taste, smell, and experience feeling by touch. In what ways are you perceiving things in you and around you in new ways? Perception Perception Perception Set ❖ Being ready to respond to a stimulus in a particular way. ❖ Mental set - using the same method to solve a problem that has worked in the past to solve a future problem. ❖ Motor set - being trained to make a quick response (bordering on automatic). ❖ Athletes training to respond to a gun shot. ❖ Perceptual set - readiness to detect a stimulus in a given context ❖ New mom responding to a baby cry; teacher responding to hearing his or her name. Perception Scrambled Letter Reading Aoccdrnig to a rseeearchr at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Or rather... According to a researcher (sic) at Cambridge University, it doesn't matter in what order the letters in a word are, the only important thing is that the first and last letter be at the right place. The rest can be a total mess and you can still read it without a problem. This is because the human mind does not read every letter by itself but the word as a whole. Perception Gestalt Principles Figure-Ground Closure Proximity Similarity Continuity Perception Figure (object/front) & ground (surface/background) Perception Closure Perception Perceptual Grouping ❖ Law of Proximity- objects near each other are grouped together. ❖ Law of Similarity- most similar items are grouped together. ❖ Law of Common Fate - objects moving in the same direction and at the same speed are grouped together. Perception Perceptual Grouping (1) ❖ Law of Proximity (1) ❖ Law of Similarity (2) (2) ❖ Law of Closure (3) ❖ Law of Continuity (4) (4) (3) Perception Motion Perception ❖ Induced (relative) motion – the perception of movement within a station object, even though it is reversed. ❖ Sitting in your car, you watch another car move and you think you are moving. ❖ Phi phenomenon – when stationary spots move quickly one after another and look like they are a single moving light. Perception Phi Phenomenon Perception Depth Perception ❖ Binocular & motion cues ❖ Retinal disparity – the difference in how the 2 eyes perceive the position of an object. ❖ Convergence – how much your eyes turn in to see something Perception Depth Perception Pictorial cues - clues that provide depth information ❖ Interposition (1) (1) ❖ Relative size (2) ❖ Size/distance relation (3) (4) ❖ Linear perspective (4) (3) (2) Perception Perceptual Constancy ❖ Size constancy – perceiving an object as being the same size regardless of whether it is near or far. ❖ Shape constancy – regardless of the angle of an object, you still recognize it as the same object. Perception Perceptual Constancy ❖ Orientation constancy – recognizing the real orientation of an object even when its orientation in the retina is oriented. ❖ Lightness constancy – seeing white, gray, and black as constant across changing levels of light. Perception Perceptual Organization - Brightness Contrast Perception Types of Blindness ❖ In-attentional Blindness: Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWSxSQsspiQ ❖ Change Blindness: Failing to notice change in the environment around us. ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EARtANyz98Q ❖ Choice Blindness: Failing to notice a change in a previously selected item ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzPpVFk_fL8 ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0pEILslQ9g Perception Stroop Effect The delay in reaction time between congruent (connected) and incongruent (conflicting) stimuli. A Challenge! Name the colors of the following words. Do NOT read the words! Perception ❖ If you assume your senses give you an accurate and undistorted picture of the world, you are probably wrong. If you don’t believe me, try this. ❖ Silently read the backwards statement below. Flip it over in your mind. What does it say?.rat eht saw tac ehT Perception ❖ How many people saw this: The cat saw the rat. ❖ Look at it again:.rat eht saw tac ehT ❖ How many people saw this: The cat was the rat. ❖ Answer: The cat was the tar. Perception ❖ In January of 2007, the Washington Post did a social experiment about perception. They had Joshua Bell, one of the world top violinists, play during the morning commute at a Washington subway station. ❖ Though over 1,000 people walked by, few stayed to listen. The week prior Bell filled a concert hall in Boston with tickets selling for over $100. Perception Perception Perception … is a process where information is organized and interpreted to form meaning. ❖ Three stages: sensation, perceptual organization, identification / recognition Closely linked to synthesis, which is combining pieces to form a complete whole. ❖ Proximal Stimulus vs. Distal Stimulus (retinal image) (physical object) Perception Perceptual Organization - Grouping Principles Gestalt grouping principles are at work here. Perception Figure & Ground Perception Perceptual Constancy ❖ Color constancy – color stays the same despite change in sensory info. ❖ Brightness constancy – see things as bright as constant despite changing levels of light reaching the retina. Perception Perception 3.2 Escher pictures 3.2 Illusions 3.2 Homework (HW) Review all Week 3 slides Escher pictures Illusions file Gestalt Worksheet Stereograms Lesson 4.1 Reminder: Please be sure to use the Attendance APP to check in for our class session (all time blocks). You need to do this in addition to signing in on the paper sign-in sheets. Thank you! Brief review of materials on Perception (Lesson 3.2) Questions on these materials? Homework review for today’s lesson a. Gestalt worksheet → please submit your work to Google Classroom! b. Escher pictures c. Illusions d. Stereograms Developmental Psychology The Developing Person Developmental Psychology ❖ a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span Developmental Psychology Studying Development ❖ Longitudinal design – observes the same person or people repeatedly (sometimes over many years) ❖ Cross-Sectional Design – Participant groups from different ages are compared to each other. Developmental Psychology Prenatal Development Zygote ❖ the fertilized egg ❖ enters an approximately 2-week period of rapid cell division ❖ develops into an early embryo Embryo ❖ the developing human organism from ~2 weeks after conception until the end of the 2nd month of pregnancy (= the completion of 8 weeks) Fetus ❖ the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception until birth Developmental Psychology Union of Egg and Sperm Developmental Psychology Womb Development ❖ Stages: Prenatal (embryo = 3rd-8th weeks), fetus (9th week → birth) ❖ Brain growth (250,000 neurons/minute) Developmental Psychology Prenatal Development 40 days 45 days 2 months 4 months Developmental Psychology Nature vs. Nurture debate Heredity From Parents Environment Genes, Learning chromosomes Models 46 chr. contained Examples in each cell Experiences Sperm & ovum carry 23 chr. each DNA Developmental Psychology Nature vs. Nurture ❖ Poor Prenatal care ❖ Nutrition may cause birth defects ❖ Anxiety ❖ Genetic disorders ❖ Mother’s general health ❖ Sickle Cell Anemia, ❖ Maternal age Hemophilia, Cystic Fibrosis, Muscular ❖ Disease Dystrophy, Albinism ❖ Teratogen — any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses) Developmental Psychology Fetal Vulnerability ❖ Mothers can pass addictions on to babies ❖ Many medications and drugs are harmful to a fetus in utero (= in the womb) ❖ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome caused by repeated heavy drinking ❖ Low birth-weight ❖ Small head ❖ Bodily defects ❖ Facial Malformation ❖ Emotional, behavioral, mental disabilities Developmental Psychology thalidomide Fetal alcohol syndrome Developmental Psychology Babies & Survival ❖ Infants are born with an immature visual system. ❖ Other senses function well on day 1 of infancy ❖ Infants will orient to sounds, especially to the mother ❖ Infants turn away from unpleasant odors ❖ Infants prefer sweet to sour ❖ Infants are born with a number of reflex behaviors. Developmental Psychology Babies & Survival ❖ At about 4 months, they can begin to detect depth. ❖ Visual Cliff (Gibson & Walk) – Babies cross a shallow section of a visual cliff table hesitantly, but not the deep end. Later research showed that babies who were able to crawl experienced a fear of heights. (Fear is not pre- wired [nature], but rather learned [nurture].) Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development ❖ JEAN PIAGET (1896–1980) – Swiss psychologist who became a leading theorist in the 1930s on human development. ❖ Schema – a framework that helps to organize and interpret information ❖ Assimilation – interpreting new experiences in terms of present schemes ❖ Accommodation – modifying present schemes to fit with new experiences Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Typical Age Description Developmental Range of Stage Phenomena Birth to 2 years Sensorimotor Object permanence Experiencing the world through Stranger anxiety senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) About 2 to 6 years Preoperational Pretend play Representing things Egocentrism with words and images Language development but lacking logical reasoning About 7 to 11 years Concrete operational Conservation Thinking logically about concrete Mathematical events; grasping concrete analogies, transformations performing arithmetical operations About 12 years Formal operational Abstract logic through adulthood Abstract reasoning Potential for moral reasoning Developmental Psychology Cognitive Development ❖ Object Permanence – The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived ❖ Stranger Anxiety – A fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age (Both phenomena are part of the Sensorimotor Stage.) Developmental Psychology Cognitive Development ❖ Egocentrism – The inability of the preoperational child to take another’s point of view ❖ Centration – Like tunnel vision, they tend to focus in on one aspect of a problem/picture/situation and whatever is perceptually important (Both phenomena are part of the Preoperational Stage.) Developmental Psychology Cognitive Development ❖ Conservation – The ability to understand that characteristics of an object stay the same even when its physical appearance changes ❖ part of Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage of reasoning ❖ Piaget's7 conservation tasks and when your child can do them | Lovevery  Stage Example Sensori-motor (birth- Will is fascinated when playing peek-a-boo. He thinks that mommy’s 2 years) face ceases to exist when she covers it with her hands. Soon, though, Will will try to look around mommy’s hands to find her face, understanding that her face is simply behind her hands. Pre-operational (2-7 After a long trip to Cleveland, Ohio with mommy and daddy, Suzy years) says she wants to give their car a rest because it must be so tired and sick from working so hard on that long journey. Later that day, when playing hide-and-seek, Suzy hides in the middle of the living room by simply covering her eyes. Concrete Janie and Bobby are playing with building blocks. They have built a Operational (7-11 big, tall pile of blocks. When Janie smashes the pile and spreads the blocks all over the floor, Bobby cries thinking there aren’t as many years) blocks to play with now. Soon he will understand that even though the shape changed, the amount of the item remains the same. Formal Operational When asked, “If Kelly is taller than Ali and Ali is taller than Jo, who is tallest?”, Mary says she doesn’t know who Kelly or Ali or Jo are so she (11 years and up) doesn’t know their height. When asked the same question, Frank can deduct the answer because he can think hypothetically – solving a problem without physically seeing or experiencing it. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Typical Age Description Developmental Range of Stage Phenomena Birth to 2 years Sensorimotor Object permanence - ends Experiencing the world through at around 3-6 months senses and actions (looking, Stranger anxiety touching, mouthing) About 2 to 6 years Preoperational Pretend play Representing things Egocentrism- not as with words and images influential as previously but lacking logical reasoning thought About 7 to 11 years Concrete operational Conservation Thinking logically about concrete Mathematical events; grasping concrete analogies, transformations performing arithmetical operations About 12 years Formal operational Abstract logic through adulthood Abstract reasoning Potential for moral reasoning Developmental Psychology Foundational Theories ❖ Frameworks for an initial understanding ❖ Theory of Mind: understanding another person's knowledge, beliefs, emotions, and intentions, and realizing each as being different from his or her own. ❖ Show the child a Band-Aid box and ask the child what he/she thinks is inside the box. He or she will likely respond “Band-Aids.” ❖ Open the box and show him/her that there is a toy pig inside, while saying “Let’s see... It’s really a pig inside!”, then close the box. ❖ Now, as you are bringing a box with a toy hidden up until now into view, the adults says “Peter has never ever seen inside this Band-Aid box. Now, here comes Peter. So, what does Peter think is in the box? Band-Aids or a pig?” (Wellman & Liu, 2004) ❖ This task measures the child’s understanding that someone may hold a belief about an event or object that does not match what the child knows to be true in reality. Developmental Psychology Adulthood – Cognitive Changes 100 Older age groups have ❖ Recalling new 90 poorer performance names 80 introduced once, Percent 70 After three twice or three of names introductions times is easier for 60 younger adults recalled 50 than for older 40 After two ones (Crook & introductions 30 West, 1990). 20 After one 10 introductions 0 18 40 50 60 70 Age group Developmental Psychology Adulthood – Cognitive Changes 24 ❖ In a study by Schonfield & 20 Robertson (1966), the Number Number of words ability to recall new 16 of words recognized is information declined remembered stable with age during early and 12 middle adulthood, but the ability to 8 Number of words recognize new recalled declines information did not. 4 with age 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 Age in years Developmental Psychology Adulthood – Cognitive Changes Cross-Sectional Study Cross-sectional method suggests decline ❖ a study in which people of 60 different ages are compared with one 55 another Reasoning ability 50 score Longitudinal Study Longitudinal method 45 suggests more stability ❖ a study in which the same people are restudied and 40 retested over a long period 35 25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 Cross-sectional method Age in years Longitudinal method Developmental Psychology Adulthood – Cognitive Changes Verbal scores are ❖ Verbal intelligence scores 105 stable with age hold steady with age, 100 while nonverbal IQ intelligence scores decline score 95 (adapted from Kaufman & 90 others, 1989). Nonverbal scores 85 decline with age Verbal scores 80 Nonverbal scores 75 20 25 35 45 55 65 70 Age group Developmental Psychology Adulthood – Cognitive Changes ❖ Crystallized Intelligence ❖ A person’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills ❖ tends to increase with age ❖ Fluid Intelligence ❖ A person’s ability to reason speedily and abstractly ❖ tends to decrease during late adulthood Developmental Psychology Language Development ❖ Motherese or infant directed speech – A style of speech used by adults (mostly parents) in all cultures to talk to babies and children ❖ NOAM CHOMSKY asserted that every child is born with a biological predisposition to learn language – “universal grammar”. ❖ Language making capacity – innate principles of learning a language Developmental Psychology Language Development MONTH Speech Characteristic 2 Cooing, vowel sounds 4 Babbling of consonants and vowels 10 Babbling of native language sounds 12 One-word stage 18-24 Two-word stage, telegraphic speech (“Mommy up!" 24+ Sentences Developmental Psychology Erik Erikson ❖ ERIK ERIKSON was a researcher trained by Freud’s daughter, and he created the theory of the psychosocial stages of development. ❖ Psychosocial stages focus on the orientation of the individual towards self and others, as well as conflicts that arise between the individual and his / her social environment.  Psychosocial Stage Age Stage Resolution Danger Crisis Insecurity, Infancy 0 - 2 Trust vs. Mistrust Sense of safety withdrawal Feeling capable of Autonomy vs. Feeling inadequate to Early 2-3 controlling your own Shame / Doubt control events body Confidence in oneself Play Age 3-5 Initiative vs. Guilt Lack of self-worth as creator Erikson’s School Age 6-12 Industry vs. Adequate basic social/intellectual Lack of self- Inferiority confidence Theory Identity vs. skills Comfortable in their Adolescence 12-18 Identity/Role Unclear sense of self sense of self Confusion Intimacy vs. Able to be close and Young 19-35 Separation Isolation committed to another Focused on concerns Generativity Adulthood 35-65 beyond family, Lack of future plans vs.Stagnation society, and future Sense of wholeness, Integrity vs. Old Age after 65 basic satisfaction with Feelings of futility Despair life. Developmental Psychology HW 4.1 ❖ Study all slides carefully. ❖ Think about how your language is acquired. Does the theory presented today match your personal experience? Be ready to discuss in small groups (take notes). ❖ Consider the theories of Piaget and Erikson as they apply to your culture. Do you agree with their conclusions based on your cultural experience? Be ready to discuss in small groups (take notes). Lesson 4.2 Reminder: Please use the Attendance APP to check in! Brief review of initial materials on Developmental Psychology from Lesson 4.1 Examination of Foundational Theories, Adulthood-Cognitive Changes, Language Development, Erikson’s theory of the psychosocial stages of development Small-group discussion (groups of 3 for 10 minutes, large group for 10 minutes) on HW 4.1 questions Developmental Psychology Konrad Lorenz ❖ Demonstrated that young geese, when raised by a human, will imprint on that human and not another goose. ❖ Imprinting – A primitive form of learning where an animal will form an attachment to the first moving object it sees. ❖ Attachment – An emotional relationship between a child and caregiver Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology Ainsworth’s Strange Situation ❖ Used to study quality of attachment in infants. ❖ Observed child’s reaction when mother is present with the child in a “strange” room. ❖ Observed the child’s reaction when mother leaves. ❖ Observed the child’s reaction when mother returns. Developmental Psychology Insecurely Insecurely Attached- Securely Attached Attached – ambivalent/resistant avoidance Child is upset when the Child shows distress parent leaves; cannot when the parent Child is aloof and be comforted, showing leaves; seeks comfort avoids/ignores the anger/resistance to the when the parent parent upon return. parent, but also longs for returns. contact. Developmental Psychology Parenting Styles ❖ The way in which parents raise their child → The most successful is considered the authoritative. ❖ Authoritarian – Parents impose rules and expect obedience, “Don’t interrupt”, “Why? Because I said so.” ❖ Authoritative – Parents are both demanding and responsive, set rules, but explain reasons, encourage discussion ❖ Permissive – Submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little punishment ❖ Neglectful – Completely uninvolved, disengaged, expect little, invest little Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology Parenting Theories ❖ Harry Harlow – Researcher who disagreed with the cupboard theory (children form attachments with their parents because they supply food) and set about testing it using baby macaque monkeys. Among his ideas: ❖ Social Isolation leads to serious problems, and normal development requires affectionate contact. ❖ Lack of social contact, rather than lack of a parent, causes the problem. ❖ Lesser periods of isolation may be overcome; longer periods cause irreparable damage. Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology Harry Harlow ❖ Contact Comfort – Comfort is found in an infant’s physical contact with the mother or caregiver. ❖ A lack of comfort for a human child, just like with baby monkeys, can cause impairments to social development, as well as develop into psychiatric disorders, physical illnesses, or even death in the cases of young infants. Developmental Psychology Adolescence ❖ G. Stanley Hall – First psychologist of the modern era to discuss adolescent development. ❖ Major theory of adolescence: ❖ “Storm and stress” ❖ M. Mead & R. Benedict argue against this theory for non-western cultures. ❖ Later research supported their argument. Developmental Psychology Social Relationships (Adolescence) ❖ During this time, peers become increasingly important as part of the development process. ❖ Peer influence may not be as bad as most people think. Adolescents tend to have friends of similar age, race, social class, and religious beliefs. ❖ Their choice in peers determines the kind of people they choose to be and the kind of relationships they choose to pursue. Developmental Psychology Adult Development ❖ Some researchers contend that during this period, children decrease the happiness between couples, as stereotypical pressures are placed on men and women to fulfill their “gender roles” after having children. ❖ Can lead to stress in the marriage. ❖ Other researchers contend that as couples put in the work to maintain a healthy marriage in loving communication (including regular “date nights”, for example), their joint collaboration in working with children leads to increased happiness. They love discovering the beauty of each child’s newness, wonder, and personal development. Developmental Psychology Adulthood – Friends ❖ Older age as a time of poor health, inactivity, and decline is a myth. ❖ Older adults do maintain friendships, but not to the same degree as adolescents. ❖ Selective social interaction theory – The view suggesting that as people age, they become more selective in choosing their friends who meet their emotional needs. Developmental Psychology Adulthood – Generativity ❖ Generativity – A commitment beyond the personal sense of self and partner to family, work, society, and future generations. ❖ Considered a crucial step in development during the 30’s and 40’s. ❖ The idea is to be “other”-oriented, but requires life to be stable to achieve it. ❖ Data suggest that few adults look back on their life with despair. Developmental Psychology Gender Role Development ❖ Gender roles – in this theory and approach, various traits designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture. At an anthropological level, these are not always consistent across cultures, in terms of what males vs. females do or how they act in particular situations. ❖ Gender identity – A person’s psychological sense of being male or female. Usually includes a person’s awareness and acceptance of the self’s biological sex. ❖ Between ages 2-3 years, children naturally can identify themselves and other children as being boys or girls. Developmental Psychology Moral Reasoning ❖ Lawrence Kohlberg founded the theory of moral reasoning, which is the thinking that occurs as we consider what is right and wrong. ❖ Itis not the conclusion we come up with, but rather the thinking behind the decision of what is right or wrong. Developmental Psychology Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder Morality of abstract Postconventional principles: to affirm level agreed-upon rights and personal ethical principles ❖ As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from Conventional Morality of law and the self to the wider social rules: to gain level approval or avoid social world. disapproval Preconventional Morality of self-interest: level to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards Developmental Psychology Moral Development Stage 7- Cosmic orientation 3. Principled Stage 6- Universal/Ethical principle orientation Morality Stage 5- Social contract orientation 2. Stage 4- Law and order orientation Conventional Stage 3- Good-child orientation Morality 1. Pre- Stage 2- Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity conventional Stage 1- Pleasure/pain orientation Morality  Level Stages & Characteristic of Stage Descriptions Preconven- Morality of self- interest: to avoid Joey has a list of chores to complete when he comes home from tional Level punishment or gain school today. He knows his dad will come home angry and concrete rewards probably take away tv time if his chores are not complete, so he chooses to do the entire list of chores. Conventional Morality of law and Jane is walking in the hallway between classes, when the person social rules: to gain walking in front of her drops his books. Jane rolls her eyes in Level approval or avoid annoyance, but chooses to help the person because her favorite disapproval teacher is watching and she doesn’t want that teacher to think less of her. She is also in the running for prom queen and wants other people to vote for her, thinking she is a nice person. Postconven- Morality of abstract Maryann is leaving the grocery store and realizes she accidentally principles: to affirm didn’t pay for the huge bag of dog food on the bottom rack of her tional Level agreed-upon rights cart. She chooses to go back into the store to pay for the dog food and personal ethical because she understands the workings of society, and the necessity principles for everyone to do what’s right so that prices don’t go up and people remain honest with each other for the betterment of society. Developmental Psychology Carol Gilligan ❖ A critic of Kolhberg, she argued that he had only observed boys. Gilligan proposed that women develop morally based on caring for others, whereas men develop based on standards of justice. ❖ Research shows this view to be inaccurate. Although men and women arrive through different processes, their actual judgments are very similar. Developmental Psychology HW 4.2 1. CNN article related to Biopsychology and detecting Alzheimer’s disease: https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/24/health/eye-early-alzheimers-diagnosis-wellness 2. How does your culture identify what is male vs. what is female? Have you noted differences in understanding of what it means to be male or female where you have lived or traveled to another culture, or in how these phenomena are expressed? Be ready to discuss in class, so please take careful notes at home of your observations! 3. Near-death Experiences tied to brain activity after death – WRITE YOUR 2- paragraph personal response and submit to Google Classroom for our next class: Near-death experiences tied to brain activity after death, study says | CNN 4. Observations HW – Please see Google Classroom instructions for details. 5.1 Developmental Psychology (conclusion) ❖ Attendance APP & sign-in sheets ❖ Brief review of Erikson & Lorenz ❖ New material on Harlow, Kohlberg, Hall, Gilligan ❖ Sex differences & gender HW 4.2 – Discuss in small groups of 4 CNN article related to Biopsychology and detecting Alzheimer’s disease: ❖ https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/24/health/eye-early-alzheimers-diagnosis-wellness How does your culture identify what is male vs. what is female? Have you noted differences in understanding of what it means to be male or female where you have lived or traveled to another culture, or in how these phenomena are expressed? Do you agree or disagree with the following photo? Is this photo true in your personal view? Is this photo consistent with your culture’s view concerning how men and women think and feel? Developmental Psychology (conclusion) HW 5.1 1. Read CDC (US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) article on Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and be ready to discuss for next class. Do you know any autistic individuals (children or adults) in your country? Describe their situation and how they and their families are handling the experience. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.html 2. Watch the 40-minute Netflix documentary The Speed Cubers (2020) using English audio with English subtitles (You may watch it first with English audio and subtitles in another language to help you with any comprehension issues). Take notes on your personal impressions for our next class discussion. * Describe the challenges that Max and his family face and how they work to resolve them. * How does Feliks help Max and his family? What is your impression of Feliks? * What have you learned from this film that can help you to help others? Consciousness States of Consciousness Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environments. Waking consciousness vs. altered consciousness completely focused driving on the highway Consciousness What Do You Know (or Think You Know) about Sleep? 1. Everyone has a biological clock. 2. Drinking coffee cures drowsiness. 3. Safe drivers don’t have to worry about being sleepy. 4. Nearly everyone gets enough sleep. 5. Being sleepy makes it hard to think straight. 6. Most teenagers need at least nine hours of sleep each night. 7. Driving makes you sleepy. 8. Sleep is time for the body and brain to shut down for rest. 9. The body quickly adjusts to different sleep schedules. 10. Getting one hour less sleep per night than I need will not have any effect on my daytime performance. Consciousness Sleep and Dreams ❖ Circadian Rhythm ❖ the biological clock ❖ regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-25 hour cycle controlling wakefulness, body temperature, coordination, etc. ❖ The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus contains ~10,000 neurons that control the circadian rhythm. The SCN receives light signals from the retina. ❖ Melatonin release as night approaches Consciousness Brain Waves and Sleep Stages Alpha Waves ❖ slow waves of a relaxed brain Spindle ❖ Small, sudden burst of activity while sleep. Delta Waves ❖ large, slow waves of deep sleep Consciousness Sleep and Dreams REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep ❖ recurring sleep stage ❖ vivid dreams ❖ “paradoxical sleep” -- muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active Sleep ❖ periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness Consciousness Stages of sleep ❖ Awake Beta waves ❖ Stage 1 Light sleep, muscle activity slows; alpha waves ❖ Stage 2 Breathing & heart rate slow. Body temp goes down; sleep spindles ❖ Stage 3 Deep sleep begins, harder to wake up, doesn’t respond to stimuli; slow delta waves start ❖ Stage 4 Very deep sleep, rhythmic breathing, limited muscle activity. Delta waves are being fully produced. Person goes back through all the stages in reverse, then after Stage 1, goes to REM sleep. REM Stage- REM starts, brain waves speed up, dreaming occurs. Breathing is rapid and shallow. The REM stage most closely resembles a waking state. Consciousness Typical Nightly Sleep Stages Awake Sleep stages 1 2 3 REM 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours of sleep Consciousness Typical Nightly Sleep Stages Decreasing Stage 4 25 Minutes of 20 Stage 4 and 15 Increasing REM REM 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Hours of sleep Consciousness Sleep Deprivation Effects of Sleep Loss ❖ fatigue ❖ impaired concentration ❖ immune suppression ❖ irritability ❖ slowed performance ❖ accidents ❖ planes ❖ autos and trucks Consciousness Night Terrors and Nightmares ❖ Night Terrors ❖ occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 ❖ Can’t be remembered ❖ Nightmares Awake ❖ occur towards morning 1 ❖ during REM sleep 2 ❖ can be remembered 3 REM 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours of sleep Consciousness Sleep Disorders Insomnia ❖ persistent problems in falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy ❖ uncontrollable sleep attacks Sleep Apnea ❖ breathing stops for a time ❖ often associated with snoring ❖ repeatedly awakes sufferer Consciousness Dreams – Sigmund Freud ❖ Dreams indicate wish fulfillment ❖ Dreams discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings ❖ Manifest Content ❖ Surface content of dreams – remembered story line ❖ Latent Content ❖ underlying, uncensored meaning Consciousness Consciousness Preconscious The Freudian iceberg Unconscious Dreams as Information Processing … ❖ helps consolidate the day’s memories ❖ stimulates neural development ❖ New material brain activity is the same as REM sleep brain activity REM Rebound … ❖ REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation Consciousness Sleep Patterns and Age Consciousness Sleep & the Brain Limbic system is active, along with visual and auditory areas of the forebrain. ❖ Brain areas for working memory, attention, logic, and self-monitoring are relatively inactive. States of Consciousness ❖ Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environments. ❖ 4 sub-levels ❖ Self-awareness (sense of identity, history) ❖ Nonconscious (blood pressure) ❖ Preconscious (something easily recalled after your attention is drawn to it) ❖ Sub/Unconscious (either: traumatic memories/taboo desires suppressed OR processes such as language) Consciousness Reasons for Consciousness ❖ Aids in survival: 1. Reduces the flow of stimulus input to what is necessary for goal achievement. 2. Sorts and organizes stimuli. 3. Uses past experiences to consider current decisions and imagine various consequences. Sleep and Dreams Measuring sleep activity Stages of sleep ❖ Awake- Beta waves ❖ Stage 1: Light sleep, muscle activity slows; alpha waves ❖ Stage 2: Breathing & heart rate slow. Body temp goes down; theta waves, spindles ❖ Stage 3: Deep sleep begins, slow delta waves start ❖ Stage 4: Very deep sleep, rhythmic breathing, limited muscle activity. Delta waves are being fully produced. ❖ Stage 5/REM Stage: REM starts, brain waves speed up, dreaming occurs. Breathing is rapid and shallow. decrease) Brain Waves and Sleep Stages Alpha Waves ❖ slow waves of a relaxed brain Spindle ❖ Small, sudden burst of activity while asleep. Delta Waves ❖ large, slow waves of deep sleep Hypnosis Hypnosis is a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur ❖ a relaxed state Hypnotic Suggestibility ❖ related to subject’s openness to suggestion ❖ ability to focus attention inwardly ❖ ability to become imaginatively absorbed Hypnosis ❖ No clear definition exists because of the controversy surrounding it. ❖ Susceptibility relates to the ability to become absorbed in reading, music, and daydreaming. ❖ Some people do experience amnesia, hallucinations with music, anesthesia, etc., but you can’t be made to do something embarrassing. Hypnosis and Pain Dissociation ❖ a split in consciousness ❖ allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others Drugs and Consciousness Psychoactive Drugs ❖ Chemical substances that alter perceptions and change mood Physical Dependence ❖ physiological need for a drug ❖ marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms Psychological Dependence ❖ a psychological need to use a drug, for example, to relieve negative emotions Substance Dependence ❖ Drug taking that leads to tolerance, withdrawal, etc. Dependence Big effect Tolerance Drug Response to ❖ need for progressively first exposure larger doses to achieve effect same effect Withdrawal ❖ discomfort and distress After repeated with discontinued use exposure, more drug is needed to produce same effect https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=NaMgdlUcsko Little effect Small Large Drug dose Drugs and Consciousness Psychoactive Drugs Depressants ❖ drugs that reduce neural activity ❖ slow body function ❖ alcohol, barbiturates, opiates Stimulants ❖ drugs that excite neural activity ❖ speed up body function ❖ caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines Psychoactive Drugs Hallucinogens ❖ psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input ❖ LSD, THC (marijuana) Depressants/Barbiturates ❖ drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment ❖ Alcohol, valium ❖ Alcohol Impairs perceptual motor skills, visual-spatial processing, problem solving, abstract reasoning, damages the nervous system and hurts the frontal lobe Opiates ❖ opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin) ❖ opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety ❖ Morphine, heroin, valium, xanax Psychoactive Drugs Drug Type Pleasurable Effects Adverse Effects Alcohol Depressant Initial high followed by Depression, memory loss, organ relaxation and disinhibition damage, impaired reactions Heroin Depressant Rush of euphoria, relief from Depressed physiology, pain agonizing withdrawal Caffeine Stimulant Increased alertness and Anxiety, restlessness, and wakefulness insomnia in high doses; uncomfortable withdrawal Metham- Stimulant Euphoria, alertness, energy Irritability, insomnia, phetamine hypertension, seizures Cocaine Stimulant Rush of euphoria, confidence, Cardiovascular stress, energy suspiciousness, depressive crash Nicotine Stimulant Arousal and relaxation, sense Heart disease, cancer (from tars) of well-being Marijuana Mild Enhanced sensation, pain relief Lowered sex hormones, disrupted hallucinogen distortion of time, relaxation memory, lung damage from smoke Cocaine Euphoria and Crash Consciousness Drug abuse and biological factors ❖ Heredity plays a role, but psychologists are unsure how much. ❖ Enzyme levels predispose a person to need to drink more to reach the same effects as those with lower levels. Meditation / Prayer Meditation / prayer suppresses activity in the sympathetic nervous system, lowers metabolism, and reduces heart rate and respiratory rate. ❖ Alpha brain waves increase. ❖ May reduce tension, stress, and pain, while increasing effectiveness of the immune system. 5.2 HW: What Do You Know (or Think You Know) about Sleep? Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following statements by writing either “Agree” or “Disagree.” 1. Everyone has a biological clock. 2. Drinking coffee cures drowsiness. 3. Safe drivers don’t have to worry about being sleepy. 4. Nearly everyone gets enough sleep. 5. Being sleepy makes it hard to think straight. 6. Most teenagers need at least nine hours of sleep each night. 7. Driving makes you sleepy. 8. Sleep is time for the body and brain to shut down for rest. 9. The body quickly adjusts to different sleep schedules. 10. Getting one hour less sleep per night than I need will not have any effect on my daytime performance. 5.2 HW Sleep Survey T F 1. I need an alarm clock in order to wake up at the appropriate time. T F 2. It's a struggle for me to get out of bed in the morning. T F 3. Weekday mornings I hit the snooze button several times to get more sleep. T F 4. I feel tired, irritable, and stressed-out during the week. T F 5. I have trouble concentrating and remembering. T F 6. I feel slow with critical thinking, problem solving, and being creative. T F 7. I often fall asleep watching TV T F 8. I often fall asleep in boring meetings or lectures or in warm rooms. T F 9. I often fall asleep after heavy meals or after a low dose of alcohol. T F 10. I often fall asleep while relaxing after dinner. T F 11. I often fall asleep within five minutes of getting into bed. T F 12. I often feel drowsy while driving. T F 13. I often sleep extra hours on weekend mornings. T F 14. I often need a nap to get through the day. T F 15. I have dark circles around my eyes. 5.2 HW Consciousness Levels Indicate the level of consciousness (1 = low (un-), 5 = high)  Nodding off in a boring class  Eating while reading a book  Preparing to give your first speech in class  Typing a term paper  Studying for an exam  Sleeping  Feeling the effects of having taken a painkiller  Vegetative coma  Meditating  Distance running or lap swimming  Quacking like a duck while hypnotized  Faint  Counting backward while being anesthetized  Driving a car in England  Driving down the road but realizing that you are  Hitting a golf ball two exits past your stop  Praying  Meeting an attractive person for the first time  Daydreaming  Being sleep deprived Read the following article, and write notes with your thoughts. Be ready for class discussion concerning any of your observations of this phenomenon in your country. Does this behavior seem normal? If so, how? If not, what developmental problems might you suggest are happening? https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2023/04/17/going-to-the-dogs/ 6.1-6.2 Learning & Cognitive Processes HW 6.1 Breaking News – Read: 1. Chris Hemsworth fans support 'Thor' star amid retirement claims after learning he's high-risk for Alzheimer's | Fox News 2. Read and write a 2-paragraph response with your personal insights to the following BBC article, hot off the press. Please submit your response on Google Classroom in a typed DOC or PDF file before our next class session, and be ready to discuss in small groups and as a large group: How mobile phones have changed our brains - BBC Future Learning ❖ relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience ❖ experience (nurture) is the key to learning Associative Learning ❖ learning that two events occur together ❖ two stimuli ❖a response and its consequence Learning Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov ❖ Russian physician/ neurophysiologist ❖ Nobel Prize in 1904 ❖ studied digestive secretions Pavlov’s device for recording salivation Learning Classical Conditioning Organism (creature) comes to associate two stimuli 1. Begins with a reflex 2. A neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex 3. Neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the reflex Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Learning Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) ❖a stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response ❖ Smelling steak Unconditioned Response (UCR) ❖ unlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus ❖ Salivating Learning Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS) ❖ previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response ❖ The bell Conditioned Response (CR) ❖ learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus ❖ Salivating Learning UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) Nausea Conditioning CS in Cancer Patients (waiting room) UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) CR (nausea)  UCS Learning Seeing your bf/gf UCR Smiling CS Water gun Your bf/gf’s perfume or cologne Conditioning UCS Seeing your bf/gf in Students UCR Smiling CS Your bf/gf’s perfume or cologne CR Smiling Learning Little Baby Albert Watson & Rayner (1920) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE Learning Conditioning Acquisition the initial stage of learning, when a response is established and gradually strengthened ❖ inclassical conditioning, the phase when a stimulus begins to evoke a conditioned response ❖ in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response Learning Conditioning Extinction diminishing of a CR ❖ in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS ❖ in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced Learning Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Acquisition Strength (CS+UCS) of CR Spontaneous Extinction recovery of (CS alone) CR Extinction (CS alone) Pause Learning Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery ❖ reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Generalization ❖ tendency for stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses Learning Stimulus Generalization Learning Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Discrimination ❖ in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS ❖ in operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced Learning Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcement Learning Schedules of Reinforcement ❖ Fixed: constant, always the same ❖ Variable: random, changing ❖ Ratio: numbers (think math) ❖ Interval: a space of time Learning Partial Reinforcement Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses.  Getting free food after 9 purchases. Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforce behavior after an unpredictable number of responses.  Gamblers Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforce the behavior after a fixed time period.  Checking the mail (comes the same time every day) Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforce the behavior after varying time intervals.  Checking cell phone (comes at different times), fishing Learning Schedules of Reinforcement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLx5yl0sxeM Learning Learning Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning ❖ Associate behavior with consequences Operant Behavior ❖ complex or voluntary behaviors ❖ push button, perform complex task ❖ operates (acts) on environment ❖ produces consequences 7.1 Learning Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) ❖ elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect (“the probability that a particular stimulus will repeatedly elicit a particular learned response depends on the perceived consequences of the response” – Encyclopedia Brittanica) ❖ developed behavioral technology ❖ Skinner Box ❖ Shaping ❖ conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal Learning Seligman and Maier ❖ An animal is repeatedly exposed to an aversive stimulus that it cannot escape. ❖ Eventually, the animal stops trying to avoid the stimulus and behaves as if it is helpless to change the situation. When opportunities to escape become available, learned helplessness means the animal does not take any action. ❖ Even when they can succeed, they won’t try. Learning Examples of operant conditioning Superstitious Behavior You do things you know have no real impact on reality because that one time you did it, the team won. Learning Positive/Negative Reinforcement/Punishment ❖ REMEMBER: When we are talking about reinforcers or punishers, the word “positive” means add or apply; “negative” is used to mean subtract or remove. Learning Reinforcement ❖ A condition where the presentation/removal of a stimulus after a behavior makes it more likely to happen again in the future. ❖ Positive Reinforcement ❖ Adding a desired stimulus presented to increase behavior Learning Negative Reinforcement ❖ Negative Reinforcement ❖ Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increases a behavior ❖ Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer stop. Learning Principles of Reinforcement Ways to Increase Behavior Term Description Example Positive Add a Watching TV after doing homework; receiving Reinforcement desirable money for an A on a test. stimulus Negative Remove an Push the snooze button to silence an alarm; Fasten Reinforcement aversive seatbelt to turn off stimulus beeping car alarm. Learning Punishment ❖ An averse/disliked stimulus that occurs after a behavior and decreases the probability it will occur again. ❖ Positive Punishment ❖ Adding an undesirable stimulus following an unwanted behavior to decrease it. Learning Punishment ❖ Negative Punishment ❖ Removing a desired stimulus following an unwanted behavior to decrease behavior. ❖ Example: getting your cell phone taken away after failing multiple classes on your progress report. Learning Principles of Punishment Ways to Decrease Behavior Term Description Example Positive Adding an Spanking; Punishment aversive speeding ticket stimulus Negative Removing a Grounded from Punishment desirable watching TV; stimulus driving privileges taken away Learning Reinforcement vs. Punishment Learning Updating Skinner Latent learning- learning is hidden until it is used ❖A child observes how to make peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, but does not do so until given the opportunity to make one himself. ❖ Rat learns a maze Learning ❖ When you draw a map of your house/apartment and label the rooms, you are working from a... Cognitive map: a mental representation of a spatial layout. Learning Kohler and the Chimpanzees ❖ Insight ❖ Learning Set- becoming better at solving problems after having solved previous ones ❖ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FwDhYUlbxiQ Learnin