Introduction to Computing Reviewer.docx

**Introduction to Computing** **Lesson 1** **Computing** - the process of utilizing computer technology to complete a given goal-oriented task. - encompasses the design and development of hardware and software systems, the organization and processing of data, and the use of algor...

**Introduction to Computing** **Lesson 1** **Computing** - the process of utilizing computer technology to complete a given goal-oriented task. - encompasses the design and development of hardware and software systems, the organization and processing of data, and the use of algorithms to solve problems. - includes various activities such as programming, data processing, network management, and the development of software applications. **Key Components of Computing** - **[Hardware]:** Physical components of a computer system, such as the CPU, memory, storage devices, and peripherals. - **[Software]:** Programs and applications that run on the hardware, including operating systems, productivity software, and specialized applications. - **[Data]:** Information processed by computer systems, which can be stored, retrieved, and manipulated. - **[Networks]**: Systems that enable computers to communicate and share resources, including local area networks (LANs) and the internet. **Brief History of Computing** *Early Beginnings* - **Abacus.** One of the earliest known computing devices, used for arithmetic calculations. - **Antikythera Mechanism.** An ancient Greek analog device, considered one of the earliest known mechanical computers, used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses. - **John Napier\'s Bones** (1617). A manually-operated calculating device used to simplify multiplication and division. - John Napier *Mechanical Era* - **Pascaline** (1642). A mechanical calculator capable of performing addition and subtraction. - Blaise Pascal - **Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner** (1672). It could perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - **Jacquard Loom** (1804). this loom used punched cards to control the pattern being woven, an early example of programmable machines. - Joseph Marie Jacquard *Early 19th Century* - **Difference Engine** (1822). an automatic mechanical calculator meant to tabulate polynomial functions. - Charles Babbage - **Analytical Engine** (1837) considered the first concept of a general-purpose computer, with components such as an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops. - Charles Babbage - **Ada** **Lovelace** (1843) Known as the first computer programmer; she wrote an algorithm intended to be processed by the Analytical Engine. *Early 20th Century* - **Hollerith's** **Tabulating** **Machine** (1890). a punch card system to assist in the 1890 U.S. Census, leading to the formation of IBM. - Herman Hollerith - **Alan** **Turing** (1936). Proposed the concept of a theoretical machine (the Turing Machine) that became the foundation of modern computer science. *Mid-20th Century - The Dawn of Digital Computers* - **Zuse's** **Z3** (1941) the first programmable digital computer. - Konrad Zuse - **ENIAC** (1945) The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was the first general-purpose digital computer. - John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly - **Transistors** (1947) revolutionized computing, leading to smaller, more reliable computers. - John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley *Late 20th Century - The Rise of Modern Computing* - **Integrated** **Circuits** (1958). Integrated circuits (ICs) allowed for the creation of smaller, more powerful computers. - Developed by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce - **Mainframe** **Computers** (1960s) IBM and other companies produced large-scale computers used by businesses and governments for complex calculations and data processing. - **Microprocessors** (1971) Intel released the 4004, the first microprocessor, leading to the development of personal computers. - **Personal** **Computers** (1970s-1980s) The Apple II (1977), IBM PC (1981), and Macintosh (1984) popularized personal computing. *Late 20th Century to Present - The Digital Age* - **Graphical** **User** **Interface (GUI)** (1980s) The introduction of GUIs with systems like the Macintosh and Windows made computers more user-friendly. - **Internet and World Wide** **Web** (1990s) The development of the internet and Tim Berners-Lee\'s World Wide Web transformed global communication, information sharing, and commerce. - **Mobile Computing** (2000s) The rise of smartphones and tablets, exemplified by devices like the iPhone (2007), brought computing power to handheld devices. - **Cloud Computing** (2010s) The emergence of cloud computing services, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure, enabled scalable, on-demand computing resources and storage. - **Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning** (2010s-present) Advances in AI and machine learning are driving innovations in numerous fields, from autonomous vehicles to personalized medicine. **Types of Computers** **Supercomputers** - The most powerful and fastest type of computer, used for highly complex calculations and large-scale simulations. - Weather forecasting, scientific research, cryptography, nuclear simulations, and complex data analysis. **Mainframe Computers** - Large, powerful computers used primarily by large organizations for critical applications, bulk data processing, and transaction processing. - Banking, insurance, government, large-scale enterprise resource planning (ERP), and transaction processing. **Minicomputers (Mid-Range Computers)** - Mid-sized computers that are more powerful than personal computers but less powerful than mainframes. - Small to medium-sized businesses for tasks such as database management, enterprise resource planning, and scientific applications. **Personal Computers (PCs)** - General-purpose computers designed for individual use, capable of handling a wide range of tasks. - Types: - **Desktop Computers:** Stationary computers typically used at a single location, consisting of a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and CPU. - **Laptops:** Portable computers that integrate the monitor, keyboard, and CPU into a single unit, with a built-in battery. - **Tablets:** Mobile computers with a touchscreen interface, often used for casual browsing, media consumption, and light computing tasks. - **Smartphones:** Handheld devices that combine mobile phone capabilities with computing functionalities. **Workstations** - High-performance personal computers designed for technical or scientific applications. - Graphic design, 3D modelling, animation, video editing, and complex simulations. **Servers** - Computers that provide services, resources, or data to other computers (clients) over a network. - Types: - **File Servers:** Store and manage files for network users. - **Web Servers:** Host websites and handle web traffic. - **Database Servers:** Manage databases and handle database queries. - **Application Servers:** Host and run specific applications for network users. **Embedded Systems** - Specialized computing systems that are part of larger devices and perform dedicated functions. - Consumer electronics (TVs, microwaves), automotive systems (engine control units, infotainment systems), industrial machines, and medical devices. **Hybrid Computers** - Computers that combine features of both analog and digital computers, capable of processing both continuous and discrete data. - Specialized scientific applications, medical instruments, and complex simulations. **Lesson 2** **Computer Hardware** - refers to the physical components of a computer system that you can touch and see. - the tangible parts that make up a computer, including everything from the central processing unit (CPU) to input/output devices. **Key Aspects of Computer Hardware** - Physical Components: This includes all the mechanical, electronic, magnetic, and electrical parts of the computer. - Functionality: Each hardware component has a specific role in the overall operation of the computer. - For example, the CPU processes instructions, while the memory (RAM) temporarily stores data for quick access. - Interconnectivity: Hardware components are interconnected, usually via the motherboard, which allows them to communicate and work together to perform tasks. **Examples of Computer Hardware** - **Central Processing Unit (CPU):** The brain of the computer that performs calculations and executes instructions. - **Memory (RAM):** Temporary storage for data and instructions that are currently in use. - **Storage Devices:** Components like Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) or Solid-State Drives (SSDs) that store data permanently. - **Motherboard:** The main circuit board that holds the CPU, memory, and other essential components. - **Power Supply Unit (PSU):** Provides power to all components of the computer. - **Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)**: Handles rendering of images, video, and animations. - **Input Devices:** Keyboards, mice, scanners, and other devices that allow users to interact with the computer. - **Output Devices:** Monitors, printers, and speakers that allow the computer to communicate with the user. **Input Devices** - allow users to enter data, commands, and signals into a computer for processing. - capture information in various forms (text, images, sound, etc.) and translate it into a digital format that the computer can process. **Common Input Devices** - **Keyboard.** Used for typing text and entering commands. - Includes keys for letters, numbers, and special functions. - **Mouse.** A pointing device used to navigate the computer's graphical user interface (GUI). - Includes buttons for selecting items, scrolling, and dragging. - **Scanner.** Converts physical documents and images into digital form. - Commonly used for digitizing printed photos or documents. - **Microphone.** Captures sound, allowing users to input audio into the computer. - Used for voice commands, recording, and communication. - **Camera/Webcam.** Captures video or still images. Used for video conferencing, streaming, and taking photos. - **Touchscreen.** A display that also serves as an input device by detecting touch gestures. - Commonly used in smartphones, tablets, and some laptops. - **Game Controller/Joystick.** Input device designed for gaming, allowing users to control on-screen actions. - Includes buttons and joysticks for navigating games. - **Graphics Tablet**. Used by artists and designers to draw directly onto the computer. - Converts hand-drawn inputs into digital art. **Output Devices** - Output devices take data processed by the computer and translate it into a form that humans can perceive, such as visual, auditory, or physical output. **Common Output Devices** - **Monitor.** Displays visual output from the computer. Can show text, images, videos, and the user interface. - **Printer.** Produces physical copies of digital documents and images on paper. Includes types like inkjet, laser, and 3D printers. - **Speakers.** Output sound from the computer, including music, voice, and other audio. - Can be built into the computer or external. - **Headphones/Earphones:** Personal audio output devices that provide sound directly to the user\'s ears. Used for private listening and communication. - **Projector.** Displays visual output on a larger surface, like a wall or screen. - Commonly used for presentations and media viewing. - **Plotter.** An output device that draws high-quality images on paper, often used for large-format printing, like architectural plans. - **Haptic Feedback Devices.** Provide tactile feedback to the user, often used in gaming and virtual reality. - Includes devices like vibrating game controllers. **Dual Function (Input/Output) Devices** - Some devices serve both input and output functions, depending on the context: - **Touchscreen:** Acts as both an input (by touch) and output (by displaying information). - **Modem:** Transmits and receives data over a network. **How Hardware Components Work Together** - **Central Processing Unit (CPU)** - Role - The CPU, often referred to as the brain of the computer, executes instructions from software by performing calculations and logic operations. - Interaction - Receives data and instructions from storage (e.g., Hard Drive) via the RAM. - Communicates with the motherboard to send signals to other components. - Outputs processed data to the GPU (if needed) and storage devices. - **Memory (RAM)** - Role - RAM temporarily stores data and instructions that the CPU needs to access quickly. It allows for fast read/write access to a temporary workspace. - Interaction - Receives data from the storage devices to be processed by the CPU. - Stores data that the CPU frequently accesses, speeding up processing times. - Sends processed data back to storage or to output devices (e.g., monitor). - **Storage Devices (HDD/SSD)** - Role: - Permanent storage for all data and software. SSDs are faster than HDDs but serve the same basic purpose. - Interaction: - Stores the operating system, applications, and files. - Provides data to RAM and CPU for processing. - Receives processed data from the CPU to store results or outputs permanently. - **Motherboard** - Role - The motherboard is the main circuit board that connects all components of the computer. - Interaction - Provides electrical connections so that all components (CPU, RAM, storage, etc.) can communicate with each other. - Houses the CPU, RAM slots, and connectors for peripherals (e.g., USB ports). - **Power Supply Unit (PSU)** - Role - Converts electrical power from an outlet into a usable form for the computer's internal components. - Interaction - Provides power to the motherboard, which then distributes it to the CPU, RAM, and other components. - Ensures that all parts receive the appropriate voltage and current. - **Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)** - Role: - Handles the rendering of images, video, and animations. - It takes load off the CPU for graphics-intensive tasks. - Interaction: - Receives data from the CPU for processing. - Outputs processed graphics data to the monitor (output device). - Sometimes works in tandem with RAM, especially in integrated graphics setups. - **Input Devices (e.g., Keyboard, Mouse)** - Role - Allow the user to provide data and control commands to the computer. - Interaction - Sends signals to the CPU via the motherboard. - CPU processes these inputs and executes corresponding actions. - **Output Devices (e.g., Monitor, Printer)** - Role - Display or produce results of processed data for the user. - Interaction - Receives processed data from the CPU or GPU. - Displays visual information (monitor) or prints data (printer). **Workflow Example** - Booting Up: - The PSU powers the motherboard and other components. - The CPU starts executing instructions from the BIOS stored in ROM (a non-volatile storage component on the motherboard). - The operating system is loaded from the storage device into RAM. - The CPU begins processing instructions from the OS, allowing the user to interact with the system via input devices. - Running an application: User clicks on an application (input device sends a signal to the CPU). - The CPU retrieves the application data from storage and loads it into RAM. - The CPU processes the application data, potentially using the GPU for visual tasks. - Processed data is sent to output devices like the monitor or speakers. **Lesson 3** **Computer Software** - an essential component of any computing system. - refers to the collection of programs, data, and instructions that enable a computer to perform specific tasks. - it is intangible but equally important in making the computer functional. **Types of Computer Software** - Computer software can be broadly categorized into two main types: - System Software - Application Software **System Software** - manages the hardware components of a computer and provides a platform for running application software. - acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer hardware. - Examples of System Software: - **Operating Systems (OS):** The most critical type of system software, an operating system manages all other software and hardware on a computer. - This includes: Windows, MacOS, Linux, Android - **Device Drivers.** These are specialized programs that allow the operating system to communicate with hardware components, like printers, graphics cards, and USB devices. - **Utilities.** These are system management tools that help maintain, analyze, and optimize computer performance. - Examples include. Antivirus Software, Disk Management Tools, Backup Software **Application Software** - designed to help users perform specific tasks or solve particular problems. - This type of software is built on top of system software and interacts directly with the user. - **Productivity Software.** Tools that help users create documents, manage data, and perform tasks efficiently. - [Word Processors] (e.g., Microsoft Word) Spreadsheets (e.g., Microsoft Excel) - [Presentation Software] (e.g., Microsoft PowerPoint) Web - [Browsers:] Software that allows users to access and navigate the internet - - This includes Google Chrome, Mozilla, Firefox and Safari - **Multimedia Software.** Used for creating, editing, and managing multimedia content such as images, videos, and music. - [Photo Editing] (e.g., Adobe Photoshop) Video Editing (e.g., Adobe Premiere Pro) - **Communication Software.** Facilitates communication between users. - [Email Clients] (e.g., Microsoft Outlook) - [Instant Messaging Apps] (e.g., WhatsApp, Slack) - **Games**. Software designed for entertainment. - PC Games - Mobile Games **Software Development** - Creating software involves a process known as software development, which typically follows these steps: - [Requirements Gathering:] Understanding the needs and expectations of the end users. - [Design:] Planning the software\'s architecture and user interface. - [Implementation (Coding):] Writing the code in a programming language like C, Java, or Python. - [Testing:] Verifying that the software works as intended and fixing any bugs. - [Deployment:] Releasing the software for users. - [Maintenance:] Updating the software to fix issues, add features, or adapt to new environments. **Lesson 4** **Operating Systems** - a software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. - Examples: - Windows - MacOS - Linux - Android - iOS **Functions of an Operating System** - **Resource Management** - CPU Management: Scheduling tasks, multitasking, managing CPU time. - Memory Management: Allocation and deallocation of memory spaces for processes, managing virtual memory. - I/O Management: Handling input/output devices like keyboards, monitors, printers, etc. - **File Management** - Organization of files into directories and managing access permissions. - **Process Management** - Managing processes, including creation, scheduling, and termination. - **Security and Access Control** - Protecting data and resources from unauthorized access. - **User Interface** - Providing a user interface such as Command Line Interface (CLI) or Graphical User Interface (GUI). **Types of Operating Systems** - **Batch Operating Systems** - Used in environments where tasks are collected and processed in batches. - **Time-Sharing Operating Systems** - Allow multiple users to share system resources simultaneously (e.g., UNIX). - **Distributed Operating Systems** - Manage a group of distinct computers and make them appear as a single computer (e.g., networked OS). - **Real-Time Operating Systems** - Used for systems requiring high precision and timing (e.g., embedded systems, medical devices) - **Mobile Operating Systems** - Designed for mobile devices with touch interfaces (e.g., Android, iOS). - **Systems Libraries** - Set of functions and routines that applications use to interact with the hardware. - **System Utilities** - Programs that perform system maintenance tasks like disk management, antivirus, etc. **Components of Operating System** - **Kernel** - The core component that manages system resources, including memory, CPU, and device communication. - **Shell** - Interface between the user and the kernel, can be command-line-based or graphical system. **Process Management** - Processes and Threads - Explain what a process is and how it differs from a thread. - Discuss process states: new, ready, running, waiting, terminated. - Process Scheduling - Discuss different types of schedulers (long-term, short-term, and medium-term). - Introduce scheduling algorithms like First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS), Shortest Job Next (SJN), and Round Robin (RR). **Memory Management** - **Memory Allocation** - Explain how memory is allocated and deallocated in systems. - **Virtual Memory** - Introduce the concept of virtual memory and how it allows systems to run larger applications. - **Paging and Segmentation** - Describe how memory is divided and managed using paging and segmentation techniques. **File Systems** - **File Organization** - Discuss how files are stored, organized, and accessed in different file systems. - **File Permissions** - Explain how operating systems manage access permissions (e.g., read, write, execute). - **Common File Systems** - Examples like NTFS, FAT32, ext4, HFS+. **User Interface and Interaction** - **CLI vs. GUI** - Compare command-line interfaces with graphical user interfaces. - **User Modes** - Discuss different user modes like user mode and kernel mode. **Security in Operating Systems** - **Authentication and Authorization** - Discuss how OS manages user access and security. - **Encryption** - Overview of how data encryption works within an OS. - **Security Policies** - Overview of the security policies and models (e.g., Discretionary Access Control, Mandatory Access Control). **Popular Operating Systems** - **Windows** - Discuss features, architecture, and common usage. - **Linux** - Open-source nature, different distributions, and uses. - **macOS** - Unix-based system, integration with Apple hardware. - **Android/iOS** - Mobile OS, app ecosystems, and hardware integration. **IT Trends in Operating Systems** - **Cloud-Based Operating Systems** - Discuss the role of cloud computing in the evolution of OS. - **Virtualization** - Explain how virtualization technologies like VMware and Hyper-V allow multiple OS instances on the same hardware. - **IoT Operating Systems** - Overview of lightweight OS used in IoT devices (e.g., FreeRTOS, Contiki).