Academic and Professional Writing Guide PDF

# English for Academic and Professional Purposes ## What are Academic Texts? - Academic texts are texts which: - Have clearly structured introduction, body and conclusion. - Include information from credible sources which are properly cited. - Include concepts and theories that are re...

# English for Academic and Professional Purposes ## What are Academic Texts? - Academic texts are texts which: - Have clearly structured introduction, body and conclusion. - Include information from credible sources which are properly cited. - Include concepts and theories that are related to the specific discipline they explore. - Usually exhibit all properties of a well-written text - organization, unity, coherence, and strict adherence to the rules of language and mechanics. ## Types of Texts ### Non-Academic Texts - Written for the mass public - Published quickly and can be written by anyone - Often does not involve research or sources - Uses informal and more conversational language - May contain slang - Author may be unknown - Usually delivers simple and basic information - Can be read and easily understood by any kind of reader - Personal, emotional, impressionistic, or subjective in nature ### Academic Texts - Written by professionals in the given field - Well - edited and often takes years to publish - Uses formal language - Contains words & terms specific to the field - Contains list of sources and references - Main goal is to advance human understanding in a particular field - Can be challenging for novice/beginner readers - Informative, argumentative, or objective in nature ## The Four Features of Language Used Are: - Formality - Objectivity - Explicitness - Caution ## Factors That Shape Academic Writing: 1. Audience 2. Purpose 3. Organization 4. Style 5. Flow 6. Presentation ## Types of Academic Texts: 1. **Descriptive:** Provides facts and information. - Keywords: identify, report, record, summarize, define 2. **Analytical:** Organizes facts and information into categories, groups, parts, types, or relationships. - Keywords: analyze, compare, contrast, relate, examine 3. **Persuasive:** Includes argument, recommendation, interpretation, or evaluation of the work of others with the addition of your own point of view. Needs to be supported by evidence. - Keywords: argue, evaluate, discuss, take a position 4. **Critical:** Requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own. - Keywords: critique, debate, discuss, and evaluate ## Examples of Academic Texts - School books and textbooks - Journal articles - Research proposals and papers - Some newspapers and magazine articles - Thesis and dissertations ## Examples of Non-Academic Texts - Blog posts - Fiction books - Letters - Personal journals and diaries ## Text Structures - **Text structure** refers to how the information within a written text is organized. - Teaching students to recognize common text structures can help students monitor their comprehension. ### Fiction - Chrono = time - Logic = order **Example:** * Jack and Jill ran up the hill to fetch a pail of water. * Jack fell down and broke his crown. * Jill came tumbling after. **All stories are told chronologically.** ### Non-Fiction - Cause and Effect - Compare and Contrast - Sequence - Problem and Solution ## Aspects of Academic and Professional Language 1. **Formality:** Use of language appropriate in academic and professional settings. - Follows accepted rules forms, and conventions of writing in a particular community or discipline - Things to avoid to achieve formality: - Colloquial words and expressions - Contractions and abbreviations - Two - word verbs - Asking questions - Sub-headings, numbering, bullet-points (in essays) 2. **Complexity:** Use of more lexical words than grammatical words. - Shorter in length, but uses longer, more complex words and phrases - Examples: - The participant was admitted to the graduate program. It came to him as a surprise. - The participant's admission to the graduate program came as a surprise. 3. **Objectivity:** Emphasis should be on the information and arguments you want to make, rather than yours. - Characterized by the use of the third person rather than the first person - Examples: - In my opinion, this is a very interesting study. - This is a very interesting study. - We should consider the impact of motivation in student achievement. - Motivation has a great impact on student achievement. 4. **Explicitness:** Refers to the organization of the ideas in the text. Shows the relationship and connection of the ideas in the text. Indicates the source of the idea. - Transitional devices - Adding ideas - In addition to - Moreover - Besides - First, second, finally - Contrast - But - Although - In spite of - Example - For example - For instance - Thus 5. **Hedging:** Expresses tentativeness and possibility in communication. - Cautious or vague language enables you to express a perspective on claims that have not been acclaimed yet by others. - Reasons for hedging: - When there are exceptions to the findings or results that are inconclusive. - When they are sure about what they are saying but want to appear more modest or show deference to their readers or colleagues. - When they want to open up possibilities for discussions. 6. **Precision:** Specifying information, dates, or figures. - Example: - A lot of people (wrong). - 50 million people (correct). 7. **Accuracy:** Sentences are free from grammatical errors. Correct and appropriate words are used. ## Language used in Hedging: - THAT CLAUSES - It could be the case that... - It might be suggested that... - There is every hope that... - TO-CLAUSE + VERB - It may be possible to obtain... - It is important to develop... - It is useful to study... ## Comparison - COMPARISON - and - similarly - also - in the same way - ASSERTION OR OPPOSITION - surely - of course - in fact - certainly - REFERENCE - as mentioned - as seen as in - table # ## Cause & Effect - CAUSE & EFFECT - Because - Therefore - For this reason - As a result - TIME - Until - Later - When - Before - PLACE - Here - Beside - Next - Below - GENERALIZATION - Generally - In general - On the whole - Commonly ## Types of Reading 1. **Developmental Reading:** A systematic instruction which aims to develop the students' reading skills. - Example: Ryan reads a long text to improve his reading comprehension skills. 2. **Pleasure Reading:** A more passive type of reading that primarily aims to provide enjoyment and entertainment. - Example: Karen reads her favorite book, To Kill a Mockingbird, to relax after a long day. 3. **Functional Reading:** Designed to help students learn basic functional reading ability. - Example: Felipe reads a college application form to understand how to fill it out. 4. **Remedial Reading:** Aims to correct the effects of the poor teaching and poor learning. - Example: Francis reads a pronunciation chart with his teacher to help him correct his pronunciation of dipthongs. ## Reading Process - Pre-Reading - While-Reading - Post-Reading ## Extensive Reading - **Extensive Reading (ER)** is an approach to second language reading. - When learners read extensively, they read very easy, enjoyable books to build their reading speed and fluency. - Another way to say this is students learn to read by actually reading rather than examining texts by studying the vocabulary, grammar, and phrases. - It is instructive to compare intensive reading with extensive reading. - Example: A teacher reads a short story with learners, but does not set them any tasks except to read and listen. ## Intensive Reading - **Intensive Reading** involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. - It can be compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills. - Example: The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order. ## Critical Reading - **Critical Reading** refers to the close and thorough evaluation of the claims in the text in terms of relevance, validity, and logic. - This skill includes distinguishing facts from opinions and detecting logical fallacies. ## Inferential Reading - **Inferential Reading** refers to the process of deducing facts and ideas not directly expressed in the text. - Skills here are: making generalizations, inferences, and conclusions. - Types of Inference - Coherence Inferences a.k.a. text connecting inferences - Elaborative Inferences a.k.a. gap-filling inferences - Local Inferences a.k.a. antecedent casual inferences as they create a coherent representation at the local level of sentence or paragraph - Global Inferences – They create a coherent representation covering the whole text. Using the local pieces of information, the reader has to infer the moral or lesson of the text. ## Basic Reading Skills 1. **Rapid Reading:** Aims to locate specific information or main ideas in a very short span of time. - E.g. skimming, scanning, and locating the main ideas. 2. **Previewing:** Is a skill wherein a reader looks over a material and focuses on the information he/she finds relevant. - It allows readers to set the purposes and link the content of the material to their background knowledge. - E.g. browsing or inspecting unhurriedly the table of contents 3. **Literal Reading:** Involves the understanding of ideas and facts that are directly stated in printed material. - Skills developed are note-taking, paraphrasing, and summarizing ## Thesis Statement - **What is a Thesis Statement?** A thesis statement is a controlling idea about a topic that the writer is attempting to prove. It is usually found at the beginning of the text or at the end of it. - **Why do we have to write a Thesis Statement?** - To test your ideas by narrowing them into a sentence or two. - To better organize and develop your argument. - To provide your reader with a "guide" to your argument. - **A good thesis statement does not simply state a fact, but sets the stage for analysis of a topic.** - The Civil War took place between 1861-1865. - The Civil War, which took place between 1861-1865, was the most devastating war in United States history. - **Which thesis statement is better?** The second thesis statement is better. - **Explain:** The second statement sets the stage for further analysis by making a claim about the Civil War, while the first merely states a fact. - **A good thesis statement is specific.** - The Crusades were fought because of religion - The Crusades were fought due to religious fanaticism and a struggle for power in the Holy Land. - **Which thesis statement is better?** The second thesis statement is better. - **Explain:** The second statement is more specific, providing a clear explanation of the reasons for the Crusades, whereas the first statement is too broad and vague. - **A good thesis statement takes a stand on the prompt.** - There are some negative and positive aspects to industrialization. - Because industrialization damaged the environment and exploited workers, its effects were more negative than positive. - **Which thesis statement is better?** The second thesis statement is better. - **Explain:** The second statement takes a clear stand on the issue of industrialization by arguing that its negative effects outweigh its positive effects, whereas the first statement avoids taking a stance, merely stating a fact. ## Identifying Text Structure Using Concept Maps ### Problem and Solution - **Author states a problem and solution(s). Similar to cause and effect.** - Missing Books - Getting Lockers - Putting in the Closet - Eagles were endangered - Make laws to protect them - **Basically Cause & Effect with an answer.** ### Sequence / Order of Importance - **Steps described in the order they occur.** - Step by Step - Make Two Loops - Put on Shoe - Tighten Laces - Tie Loops Together - 1. Get bread - 2. Open jars - 3. Spread peanut butter - 4. Spread jelly - 5. Combine slices - 6. Enjoy - **Does not take place at any specific point in time.** ### Compare and Contrast - **Compare - find similarities** - **Contrast - find differences** - **Shows what's in common and what's different.** - Apples & Oranges - Alike - Fruits - Have Seeds - Healthy - Different - Colors - Tastes - Locations ### Cause and Effect - **Explains reasons why something happened.** - **Or explains the effects of something.** - Not feeding it. - Not playing with it. - Not loving it. - The dog ran away - Lots of karate movies in the 60s. - Many karate schools opened - Nunchuck sales increased 400%. - Hospital cases went up. - **Text is not telling the story of a dog**