Teaching Aids and Instructional Materials PDF

WHAT ARE THE COMMON VISUAL AIDS/ INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS THAT YOU ALWAYS OBSERVED USED BY YOUR TEACHERS DURING ELEMENTARY JHS SHS COLLEGE? TEACHING AIDS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS From a 21st-century, post-pandemic, and post-chatGPT point of view, teaching aids and instruction...

WHAT ARE THE COMMON VISUAL AIDS/ INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS THAT YOU ALWAYS OBSERVED USED BY YOUR TEACHERS DURING ELEMENTARY JHS SHS COLLEGE? TEACHING AIDS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS From a 21st-century, post-pandemic, and post-chatGPT point of view, teaching aids and instructional materials can be considered as “learning and teaching resources” for a hybrid online-offline educational setting powered by humans and technology. They are now mostly screens and computers connected via the internet (teaching aids) and educational media (instructional materials). Technological changes have merged the concepts of teaching aids & instructional materials in ways that old definitions did not foresee. Together, the entire ecosystem of tools that deliver and process information are called Internet and Communication Technologies (ICTs). But let’s look at this from a simple, traditional point of view first.  Classification 1 Non-electronic – Chalkboards, flip boards, slates, print photos & media, telescopes Electronic/digital – Computers, mobiles, clicker devices, internet-powered apps, PowerPoint slideshows, Augmented reality/Virtual reality goggles, AV-room equipment, music/art-based content delivery Classification 2 Auditory: Radios, tape recorders, CD players (now redundant) Visual: Slides, projectors, digital screens (now mostly digital screens only) Audiovisual: Youtube, Reels (yes, they are helpful), Ted Talks, Live stream apps, documentary repositories, Instagram guides/stories, and TikTok Audiovisual and tactile: 3D models, field visits, toys, lab apparatus, plant/animal/rock specimens Collaborative/Social: Online classrooms, forums, Facebook pages, Quora spaces, subreddits, special interest group discussions, virtual meetups, study and support groups, websites that allow collaboration, score/progress tracking websites, feedback websites, artificial intelligence as a collaboration tool What are Instructional Materials? Instructional materials are those items that assist and describe the information aspect of teaching. These could take the form of textbooks, worksheets, 3D models, charts, infographics, etc. Instructional materials also include assessment and testing methods. Basically, any material, any information containing resources, that the teacher uses while instructing. Now testing materials don’t necessarily contain information, but they help the retention and learning of information; thus, they are instructional materials. Sometimes, they are a means to an end, the end being the assimilation of information. Key differences between Teaching aids and Instructional materials As you’ll see in this article, TAs and IMs work together to reach teaching goals. However, the traditional separation of TAs and IMs is superficial and needs revision. It breaks down based on who uses a specific tool and how it is used. Dictionaries don’t define Instructional materials clearly. The term “instructional material” is largely restricted to the literature on specific pedagogies. In fact, the term ‘Instructional materials’ is used in the context of reaching course-based learning goals. IMs are specifically designed to align with learning objectives and outcomes. Whereas, teaching aids are not always designed to meet course-based goals. You might have guessed – the same object can be a TA or an IM.  The main difference between TA and IMs is: A TA is used as a delivery method that can be applied to any context. An IM is subject-specific and contains information within itself.  Example 1: A teacher is using a book in the class; each student has a copy. If a book is used as a course-prescribed resource, it is an instructional material. If the book is a student engagement activity (reading and discussing a story to build vocabulary) and isn’t a part of the syllabus, it would function as a teaching aid.  Example 2: You are studying algae under a microscope. A microscope would be an instructional material if a course-based learning goal is ‘using a microscope to study microscopic entities.’ However, a microscope would be a teaching aid for a theory class on algae. A teacher could use one to show students what it looks like in order to engage the class in learning about algae.  Traditionally speaking, teaching aids have been thought of as devices that can be used – white and blackboards, computers, calculators, projectors, slideshows, tape recordings, television, etc. Teaching aids are tools that help the delivery of information. A TA isn’t information, or to put it in a different way, information is not directly embedded in a TA. But IMs often have information embedded in them. Resource books, worksheets, graphs, etc., are all IMs because of this embedding. However, tools such as microscopes are IMs if students are learning what microscopes are. Sometimes, graphical media can be used as both – infographics could be a teaching aid if they help but not core teaching resources, or they can be embedded within a book or used as a way to summarize a larger concept directly. Digital media is often considered an Instructional material because the information is embedded in it, and it needs planning for educational use. This planning is eventually integrated into the coursework as a learning activity.  Tests, reference material, quizzes, conceptual Conceptual/Theoretical learning differentiation via video, charts, whiteboards, infographics, chatGPT Tests, quizzes, fact sheets, prioritizing details via Nuances, recent developments attempts at summarizing (presentation, articles, research reviews) Maps, Timelines, live analysis of “what ifs” with Social sciences secondary sources Museums, photos, field trips, case studies, real- Context world applications Teaching aids, Instructional material, and resources for the digital learning sphere Many decades ago, TAs and IMs were focused on classroom activities. However, the very definition of the classroom has changed. The world has moved online, which is now a valid alternative method of conducting educational activities. Lectures are presented via ZOOM, Skype, and Microsoft Meets. Most notes are provided digitally. A typical class appears on a screen as a collection of students and teachers. What materials and aids work in such a situation? What are the unique problems of such classes that TA & IMs can solve?  Most students are very familiar with searching for supplemental material on the Internet. Most prominently, students use Wikipedia, chatGPT, professional YouTube channels like In a nutshell, Sci-show, Veritasium, Numberphile, and CGP gray, Reddit (asking questions, finding sources, discussing), and additional independent content offered by courses on Coursera, Udemy, and Khan Academy. Many students even run their blogs to show what they learn and jot down notes. Some make creative videos and run podcasts. These are all self-motivated alternatives to the use of TAs and IMs. These work because millennial and gen Z students prefer autonomy and control in how they learn. They are intrinsically motivated because they have the choice to choose how they learn. Teachers can facilitate this and tap into this autonomy. Teachers can also curate these resources for students based on their preferences and learning goals.  The search for content online taps into our “transactive memory.” A novel problem of internet-based learning is the potential to forget what you learn because we remember where to find information better than what the information is (The Google Effect). Many students can now take the time to look for information because they are good at it. Knowing this, many don’t feel the value in remembering it. However, remembering information is a necessary condition to make it “intuitive.” There are a number of tools that can be used to present information via audio and video. Online tools like graph generators, graphic designing software, coding platforms, podcast notes, qualitative and quantitative research tools like NVivo and python, etc., are alternative digital TAs. Online content sources (audio & video), discussion threads, e-books, and curated lists are alternatives to Instructional materials. The largest advantage of this is an increase in the diversity of thoughts and informational sources – a clear predictor of quality learning. Depending on what students have to learn and what teachers are willing to teach, any aspect of browsing the internet can be a potential TA or IM. For example, browsing Amazon for learning about user experience and e- commerce works as a TA and IM. Most pages on the internet are densely connected to other pages and because of intimate familiarity with the internet, it is possible to explore and learn. Benefits of teaching aids and instructional materials 1. Conceptual knowledge requires examples, familiarity with the concept’s features, contexts, and engagement/experience. These tools directly help. 2. Some academic subjects like biology or electronics can benefit students in more useful ways if they know what the real-world counterparts to a theory are – circuits, a tissue under a microscope, plants, etc. Such information sticks longer because the memory encoding for these concepts involves strong sensory and experiential components. The brain acquires concepts with multiple representations in a network- right from what the concept looks like on paper to how it feels to the senses. 3. Using YouTube videos and discussing Ted talks puts dense information in a familiar context. YouTube is a part of human culture, and so are memes; putting information in the context of the internet culture can motivate or change the perception of the so-called ‘boring’ topics. 4. IMs and TAs also motivate students at the level of the classroom. This goes hand in hand with confidence (security that one can learn), as having materials is proof of accessing information. Having access can, at the very least, prime students to learn. 5. Relying on general information on the internet can overwhelm students due to an inherent lack of direction and potential misinformation. This problem can be solved by designing IMs as an anchor for a topic, using authority references, summarizing content, or priming content like video overviews and infographics. 6. The cost of implementing TAs and IMs is not trivial. However, improved teaching efficacy and learning efficacy can significantly lower the burden of learning course content. Based on a currently unpublished survey I ran with a client, the primary need of teachers is read-to-consume lessons so teachers don’t have to produce new instructional materials for every class. Teachers may save time, students may require less effort to achieve learning goals, and primary organizational resources would be better managed (man-hours to pay for, classroom upkeep, scheduling). And even if it does cost the organization a little more, better learning would probably always be worth it. 7. Testing and assessment not only help to confirm the learning of content but also help improve the learning. Research has shown that being tested (the testing effect) can promote memory and conceptual understanding. Attempting worksheet exercises, quizzes, essays, etc., reinforces learning and creates a hub for further self-motivated learning. 8. At the superficial level and the definition level, who wouldn’t want a lively class and learning experience? Co g nitive Le arning The o rie s and its Implic atio n o n S c ie nc e Clas s ro o m Te ac hing Presenters: Azlina Wati Bt. Aziz Azura Bt. Razali Lukman B. Che Hassan Yuhana Anom Bt Md. Yunos  David P. Ausubel was born in 1918 Grew up in Brooklyn, NY Attended the University of Pennsylvania, taking the pre-medical course and majoring in Psychology In 1973 he retired from academic life to devote full time to his psychiatric practice His principal interests in psychiatry have been general psychopathology, ego development, drug addiction, and forensic psychiatry In 1976 he received the Thorndike Award from the American Psychological Association for "Distinguished Psychological Contributions to Education".  Introduction -Supported the theory that pupils form & organise knowledge by themselves -Emphasized the importance of verbal learning / language-related learning which he consider to be very effective for pupils of the age 11 or 12 & above -Pupils gradually learn to associate new knowledge with existing concepts in their mental structures -To ensure meaningful teaching, necessary to avoid rote memorising of facts. Pupils need to manipulate ideas actively  Advance Organizer -Presents an overview of the information to be covered in detail during the exposition that follows -Can be classified : exposition or comparison type  Advance Organizer of the Exposition Type -While presenting new material -Use beginning of lesson -Presents several encompassing generalisations where detailed contents will be added later  Advance Organizer of the Comparison Type -Useful when the knowledge to be presented is new to pupils -Compares new material with knowledge already known by emphasising the similarities between 2 types of material & showing the information that is to be learnt -Ausubel’s teaching approach is deductive in nature  SPECIFIC Step 4:The pupils study specific examples Step 3:The teacher presents examples Step 2:The teacher explains important terms Step 1:The teacher presents general statement or abstraction of lesson ADVANCE ORGANIZER GENERAL Deductive Teaching Model: Advance Organizer as the basis of the lesson Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning  A concerned with how students Learning is based on the learn large amounts of representational, meaningful material from superordinate and verbal/textual presentations in combinatorial processes that a learning activities occur during the reception of information. Meaningful Reception Learning Theory Meaningful learning results A primary process in learning is when new information is subsumption in which new acquired by linking the new material is related to relevant information in the learner's own ideas in the existing cognitive cognitive structure structure on a non-verbatim basis (previous knowledge) The pro c e s s e s o f me aning ful le arning Ausubel proposed four processes by which meaningful learning can occur : Derivative subsumption Correlative subsumption Superordinate learning Combinatorial learning  Derivative subsumption Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is an instance or example of a concept that pupils have already learned Example (S tag e 1) : PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE : Le t's s uppo s e Ali have ac quire d a bas ic c o nc e pt s uc h as "tre e ” – have g re e n le ave , branc h, fruits Ali le arn abo ut a kind o f tre e that he have ne ve r s e e n be fo re “pe rs immo n tre e ” - c o nfo rms to his pre vio us unde rs tanding o f “tre e ’’ His ne w kno wle dg e o f pe rs immo n tre e s is attac he d to the c o nc e pt o f tre e , witho ut s ubs tantially alte ring that c o nc e pt in any way Correlative subsumption more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept Example (S tag e 2) : No w, le t's s uppo s e Ali e nc o unte r a ne w kind o f tre e that has re d le ave s , rathe r than g re e n Ac c o mmo date this ne w info rmatio n Ali have to alte r o r e xte nd yo ur c o nc e pt o f “tre e ’’ to inc lude the po s s ibility o f re d le ave s  Superordinate learning Example (S tag e 3) : Ali was we ll ac quainte d with maple s , o aks , apple tre e s e tc., but pupils s till did no t kno w, until the y we re taug ht that the s e we re all e xample s o f de c iduo us tre e s In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but you did not know the concept itself until it was taught to pupils.  Combinatorial learning Example (S tag e 3) : Ali le arn abo ut mo dific atio n o n the plants part, Ali mig ht re late it to pre vio us ly ac quire d kno wle dg e o f ho w papyrus tre e us e d to pro duc e pape r It describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is comes from his previous knowledge (in a different, but related, "branch") Students could think of this as learning by analogy  Principles of Ausubel's Meaningful Reception Learning Theory within a classroom setting General ideas of a subject (general statement): – Must be presented first – then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. Instructional materials : – should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information – Using comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.  Principles of Ausubel's Meaningful Reception Learning Theory within a classroom setting Advance organizers : – Instructors should incorporate advance organizers when teaching a new concept Examples : – Instructors should use a number of examples and focus on both similarities and differences. The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows..  TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES Educational Taxonomy is classified into three domains namely: (1) cognitive, (2) affective, and (3) psychomotor or behavioral. Bloom’s Taxonomy Of Cognitive Domain (1956) -Benjamin Bloom led his group in coming up with the list of instructional objectives in the cognitive domain. Arranged from lowest to the highest level, they are as follows: Knowledge or recall – knowledge of terminology and conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria and methodologies, principles, theories, and structures. Verbs: define, memorize, record, list, name, write, identify, distinguish Comprehension – relate to translation, interpretation, and extrapolation. Verbs: restate, discuss, describe, explain, express, illustrate, report, recognize, review, locate Application – requires the student to solve or explain a problem or applying what he/she have learned to other situation.  Verbs: apply, demonstrate, sketch, translate, interpret, employ, play, news, dramatize, practice, operate Analysis- objectives relate to breaking a whole into parts Verbs: analyze, compare, differentiate, appraise, distinguish, criticize, test, calculate, discriminate Synthesis- putting parts together in a new form such as a unique communication, a plan of operation, and a set of abstract relations. Verbs: create, hypothesize, invent, think of a way, plan, formulate, construct, assemble, propose, design Evaluation- judging in terms of internal evidence or logical consistency and external evidence or consistency with facts developed elsewhere Verbs: judge, appraise, evaluate, measure, defend, assess, indicate, score, select, rate Anderson’s taxonomy of cognitive domain. (1990’s) Lorin Anderson together with a team of cognitive psychologists revisited Bloom’s taxonomy. Bloom Anderson Evaluation Creating Synthesis Evaluating Analysis Analysing Application Applying Comprehension Understanding Knowledge Remembering  Remembering: Learner’s ability to recall information Understanding: Learner’s ability to understand information Applying: Learner’s ability to use information in a new way Analyzing: Learner’s ability to break down information into its essential parts Evaluating: Learner’s ability to judge or criticize information Creating: Learner’s ability to create something new from different elements of information Anderson and Krathwohl Updates 1. Category names were revised from nouns to verbs. 2. The last two stages of Bloom’s Taxonomy were switched so that evaluation (evaluating) comes before synthesis (creating).  Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Overview Social Processes in Learning Social Learning & Social Cognitive Theories Constructivist and Situated Learning Applications of Constructivist and Situated Learning Looking Back at Learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Concept Map for Chapter 9 Social Processes Looking Back in at Learning Learning Personal, Social, and Emotional Development Applications of Social Learning Constructivist and and Situated Perspectives Social Cognitive on Learning Constructivism & Theories Situated Learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Social Processes in Learning Different meanings for different students Learning is a social process Observation, dialogue, culture affect learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theories Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Social Learning Theory Terms Social Learning Theory Acquisition of knowledge Observable performance Social Cognitive Theory Enactive learning Vicarious learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Learning by Observing Others Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation and reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Factors That Influence Observational Learning Developmental level of learner Status & prestige of the model Similarity of models Vicarious consequences Outcome expectations Value of the goal Self-efficacy See Table 9.1, Woolfolk, p. 326 Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Observational Learning in Teaching Directing attention Fine-tune already- learned behaviors Strengthening / weakening inhibitions Modeling Arousing emotions Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon See Guidelines, Woolfolk, p. 328  Reflection Questions Think of a time when you learned something by watching another person. Analyze the model for status and similarity to yourself. What was your motivation for learning the new behavior? Was the learning experience effective for you? Why or why not? Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Elements of Personal Factors: Reciprocal beliefs, Determinism expectations’ attitudes Learning & Environment: Behavior Behavior: resources actions consequences verbal statements physical setting choices Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Constructivism & Situated Learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Constructivist Views of Learning Emphasize the role of the learner Psychological/individual constructivism Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism Sociological Constructivism : How public knowledge is constructed Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  The Construction of Knowledge External influences: accurate mental representations of the outside world Internal influences: new knowledge is abstracted from old knowledge Combination of external & internal: an interaction of both influences builds knowledge Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon See Table 9.2, Woolfolk, p. 332  Questions about Constructivism Is the world knowable? Radical constructivism Is knowledge situated or general? Situated learning Community of practice Enculturation Transfer: general or specific? Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Elements of Constructivist Perspectives Complex, challenging learning environments Authentic tasks Social negotiation Intersubjective attitude Multiple representations of content Spiral curriculum Metacognition aids in the knowledge construction process Student-centered instruction Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Applications of Constructivist & Situated Perspectives on Learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Cognitive Models of Teaching Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Group Work and Cooperation in Learning Dialogue & Instructional Conversations Cognitive Apprenticeship Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Inquiry & Problem-Based Learning Teacher presents a puzzling event Students formulate hypotheses Collect data Draw conclusions Reflect on original problem Reflect on the thinking process Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon Guiding Teacher Thinking about Inquiry-Based Science Instruction GUIDING QUESTIONS and Focus Questions REPORT Findings (Public sharing) ENGAGE Claims Hypotheses INVESTIGATE Questions Procedures Determine Evaluate RELATIONSHIPS EXPLANATION Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon Prediction  Problem-Based Learning Real problems that have meaning for students Problems may not have “right” answers Current events, social issues Anchored instruction Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon See Table 9.3, Woolfolk, p. 339  Group Work & Cooperation in Learning ▪ Group work ▪ Cooperating in learning ▪ Constructivism and cooperative learning ▪ See Table 9.4, Woolfolk, p. 341 Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Misuses of Group Learning Process valued more than the learning Misunderstandings reinforced Socializing takes precedence One ‘expert’ student does all the work Status differences may be increased Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon Making Cooperative Learning Work Face-to-face interaction Positive interdependence Individual accountability Teach collaborative skills Group processing Size and make-up of groups See Table 9.5, Woolfolk, p. 344 Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Models of Cooperative Learning Jigsaw Reciprocal questioning Scripted cooperation See Figure 9.2, Woolfolk, p. 346 Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Constructivist Considerations Promoting dialogue Instructional conversations Cognitive apprenticeships Reciprocal teaching Cognitive apprenticeships for thinking Stand alone programs Culture of thinking throughout classes See Woolfolk, Table 9.6, p. 248, and Point▼Counterpoint, p. 353 Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Encouraging Critical Thinking Using the language of thinking Defining & clarifying the problem Judging information related to the problem Solving problems/drawing conclusions Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Looking Back at Learning Different view of learning No “best’ approach Tools for professional decision making See Table 9.8, Woolfolk, p. 358 Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Summary Social Processes in Learning Social Learning & Social Cognitive Theories Constructivist and Situated Learning Applications of Constructivist and Situated Learning Looking Back at Learning Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Review Questions Distinguish between social learning and social cognitive theories. Distinguish between enactive and vicarious learning. What are the elements of observational learning? What is reciprocal determinism? Describe three kinds of constructivism. Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Review Questions In what ways do constructivist views differ about knowledge sources, accuracy, and generality? What are some common elements in most constructivist views of learning? Distinguish between inquiry and problem- based learning. Describe five elements that define true cooperative learning. Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon  Review Questions Describe six features that most cognitive apprenticeship approaches share. Describe the use of dialogue in reciprocal teaching. What is meant by thinking as enculturation? What do different views of learning add to our understanding? Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon A Learning Theory Put into Practice:  Roots: Cognitive Psychology and Biology  Based On: Experimental Learning through life experiences to construct knowledge.  What It Is: Adaptive learning that challenges thinking by integrating prior experience to create new knowledge. It allows for creative, original and innovative work.  What It Does: Encourages discovery through project or tasked based learning, hands-on and experimental and often, collaborative work.  The Student: Self-directed, creative and innovative.  The Students Culture: The culture or embedded world view will allow the student to arrive at his/her own version of “Truth”.  The Students Role: Progressively begins to take responsibility for their own learning as they proportionally gain the skills to do so.  The Students Motivation: Mastery of skills and problem solving gained from experimentation give confidence in their learning potential.  The Educator: Takes the role of facilitator in helping students to take active roles in discovery and in coming to their own conclusions.  Its Roots: Maria Montessori first studied mentally disabled children in asylums in Rome. Through those discoveries she wanted to apply her techniques on mentally “normal” children. That first school, Casa de Bambini, opened in 1907 in Italy.  The Philosophy: Children are naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating learning within a supportive environment.  Its Distinctive: Multi-age grouping for peer learning, uninterrupted blocks of discovery time, guided choice of work activities and specially designed learning materials.  The Triangle: Teacher, Student and Environment encourage independence, freedom without limits and provide a sense of order. The child uses what the environment offers and interacts with the teacher only as support or guidance is needed.  The Stages: Four Planes of Development Age 0-6 Age 6-12 Age 12-18 Age 18-24 First Plane Second Plane Third Plane Fourth Plane Dr. Montessori’s 4 Stages of Development were labeled “Planes”. The 1st and 3rd planes are periods of intense creation, while the 2nd and 4th planes are calm.  The Stages: Four Planes of Development Age 0-6 Early Childhood The Sensitive Period 0-3 Unconscious/3-6 Conscious Characterized by: The intense need for Order Language development First Plane Refinement of senses Movement Concrete Thinking Construction of physical person, character Physical Independence - “I do it myself”  The Stages: Four Planes of Development Age 6-12 Childhood Construction of The Intelligence Characterized by: Reasoning with imagination and logic A thirst for knowledge Learning about the universe and his/her place in it Second Plane A sense of morality and Justice Reasoning skills; the “How” and the “Why” Intellectual independence - “I can think it myself”  The Stages: Four Planes of Development Age 12-18 Adolescence Construction of Social Self Characterized by: Self concern and self assessment Critical thinking and re-evaluation Transition period both physically and mentally Trying to find place in the world Third Plane Construction of social and moral values Ongoing cultural development is solidified here  The Stages: Four Planes of Development Age 18-24 Adulthood Construction of Self Understanding Characterized by: Construction of spiritual values Conscious discernment of right and wrong Seeking to know ones place in the world Fourth Plane Financial independence CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY MONTESSORI METHOD  Experimental Learning through life  Naturally eager to learn and capable of experiences to construct knowledge. initiating learning through play.  Adaptive learning that challenges  As child passes from the concrete to the thinking by integrating prior experience abstract , he begins the application of his to create new knowledge. It allows for knowledge to real-world experiences. creative, original and innovative work.  Progressively begins to take on  Create a desire in the student to tackle responsibility for their learning as they challenges and a desire to go beyond the proportionally gain the skills to do so. classroom environment for exploration.  Takes the role of facilitator in helping  Teacher facilitates a sense of order with students to take active roles in discovery the child using them for support or and in coming to their own conclusions. guidance is needed. This presentation was created with the intention of informing those interested in the Montessori Methodology. Be it teacher considering to implement portions into their classroom, or complete change overs, to perhaps a parent wanting to supplement their own child's education. Mooney, Carol G.. Theories of Childhood. Special ed. Pearson Education Inc.: Redleaf Press, 2000. Print. Montessori, Maria, Montessori Method, The. Wilder Publications LLC, Radford, VA , 2008. Print. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori_education http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_ of_education) http://www.mediachildrenshouse.com/about-us/the- montessori-method/four-planes-of-development http://www.montessoriedu.org/montessori-education //www.amshq.org/Montessori-Education/Introduction-to- Montessori.aspx http://www.montessori.org/ http://www.montessoriedu.org/  THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION Armando “ Candy” E. Caindoy  INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN  is the systematic process of translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning.  is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences.  the process consist broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction and creating some “intervention” to assist in the transition.  BACKGROUND  Early Contributors such as: – Socrates – Plato – Aristotle -regarding cognitive basis of learning and memory  BACKGROUND  13th Century St. Thomas Aquinas – perception of teaching in terms of freewill  17th Century John Locke -advance Aristotle notion of human’s initial state of mental blankness by proposing that almost all reason and knowledge must be gained from experience.  BACKGROUND  20th Century  John Dewey -presented several tenets of philosophy of education which promoted the idea that learning occurs best when doing, rather that role regurgitation of facts.  Thorndike -theory of connectionism represents the original stimulus- response (S-R) model of behavioral psychology.  Hull (expand) -drive reduction- a motivational model of behavior. -emphasize learner’s wants, attention, and activities.  Sidney Pressey -applied mechanized technology to increase the efficiency of the learning process.  BACKGROUND  Ralph Tyler -using teaching machine training.  B.F. Skinner -S-R, feedback and reinforcement  Benjamin Bloom – Taxonomy: Three Domains: Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor  David Merill – -component display theory – -which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional material – (representation techniques).  Behaviorism (Modern)  Christopher Green  Don Clark  Gary DeMar  Petrina Quinn  Ivan Pavlov (1924)  Edward Thorndike  John Watson  B. F. Skinner  Cognitivism  JudithConway  David Ausubel (Advanced Organizers)  Edgar Dale (Cone of Experience)  George Miller (Information Processing )  Allan Paivio (Dual Coding Theory)  Joseph Novak (Concept Mapping )  Constructivism  Bartlett (1932)  Merril  JeanPiaget  Jerome Bruner  George Kelly  Maria Montessori The Basics of Constructivism  Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events." "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991).  Ifeach person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model, makes the following comments:  "Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy."  "A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way."  "Constructivists also believe that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation..."  Realistic vs. Radical Construction  Realistic constructivism - cognition is the process by which learners eventually construct mental structures that correspond to or match external structures located in the environment.  Radical constructivism - cognition serves to organize the learners experiential world rather than to discover ontological reality (Cobb, 1996, in Smorgansbord, 1997).  The Assumptions of Constructivism - Merrill  knowledge is constructed from experience  learning is a personal interpretation of the world  learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience  conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning  learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity (Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997)  OUTCOME directly observable scientifically measured completely hidden and assumed  Instructional Design As:  Process: is the systematic development of instructional specification using learning and instructional theory to ensure quality of instruction.  Discipline: branch of knowledge concern with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.  Science: creating detailed specification for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situation that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.  Reality: can start at any point in the design process  Method Behaviourism Theory Organization Practice Multiple Cognitivism Intelligences Approach Design Procedure Humanism Constructivism  CRMEF ENGLISH STUDIUES SAFI Presentation Presentation on: Language Learning Theories  Outline  Behaviourism  Cognitivism  Constructivism  Humanism  Multiple Intelligences Behaviourism 4  Behaviorism Definition: Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It (1913). theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental shapes our behaviors. 5 learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli.  behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place (Parkay & Hass, 2000).  Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Classical Conditioning This illustration shows the steps of classical conditioning. 1. Food= salivation 2. Food + Stimulus = salivation (conditioned stimulus) 3. Bell alone produces salivation (conditioned response)  B.F. Skinner "the things we call pleasant have an energizing or strengthening effect on our behavior" (Skinner, 1972, p. 74)  Operant Conditioning This illustration: illustrates operant conditioning. The mouse pushes the lever and receives a food reward. Therefore, he will push the lever repeatedly in order to get the treat.  3 - Behavior Modification: Positive Negative Result Reinforcement Sth added Sth removed Behavior increases Punishment Sth added Sth removed Behavior decreases 11  Implication in Teaching REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT (Behavior Increases) (Behavior Decreases) POSITIVE (Something is Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment added) Something is added to Something is added to increase desired behavior decrease undesired Ex: Smile and compliment behavior student on good Ex: Give student detention performance for failing to follow the class rules NEGATIVE (Something is Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment removed) Something is removed to Something is removed to increase desired behavior decrease undesired Ex: Give a free homework behavior pass for turning in all Ex: Make student miss their assignments time in recess for not following the class rules  Criticisms of Behaviorism Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts and feelings. Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement and punishment. People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement. Cognitivism I think, therefore, I exist. As a response to behaviorism: ‘People are not programmed animals. People are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn and whose actions are a consequence of thinking.’  Historical background Cognitivism is the study in psychology rooted in Gestalt psychology and the work of Jean Piaget. It has been prominent in psychology since 1960s. It is a theory of learning which deals with understanding the human mental functions; unlike behaviorism that views learning a response to a stimulus or a habit formation.  Ulric (Dick) Neisser is the father of cognitive psychology. He publised his book ‘Cognitive psychology ’in 1967 and defines cognition as the processes: ‘By which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used…. Cognition is involved in everything a human might possibly do’.  Types of personalities Thinking styles Learning strategies  Personality types : the American psychological theorist Isabel Mayer Briggs(1987-1980):  Extroversion versus introversion  Thinking versus feeling  Sensing versus intuision  Judging versus perception  Extraversion versus introversion Extroverts prefer to focus on the outer world of people and things around them. Their energy Is generated from others. Introverts prefer to focus on their inner thoughts and impressions.  THINKING VERSUS FEELING THINKERS like to base their decisions on objective data and logical analysis, by intellectually judging the true and false. FEELERS like to base their decisions on their own values and peronal judgment of what Is true or false.  SENSING VERSUS INTUITION Sensors focus on facts by noticing details. intuitivers tend to focus on meaning and patterns.They perceive information indirectly by making associations and models using intuition.  JUDGING VERSUS PERCEPTION Judgers are people who like to make decisions, they prefer using schedules and to do lists while working. Perceivers are people who like to leave things open-ended, they are of spontaneous type.  THINKING STYLE Hudson(1967): CONVERGENT learners are the ones who look for unique methods and unique solutions. They are good at bringing material from various sources to solve a problem and provide the correct answer. DIVERGENT learners are known for their creativity and lateral thinking.  Learning strategies Pask(1979) differentiates between: Serialist learners are the ones who prefer to move step by step in their learning process. Holist learners prefer to learn in a hierarchal way they tend to learn everything at once. S1 S2 Step3 Step2 Step1 Holist Serialist  Definition of Constructivism A type of learning theory Appeared as a reaction to behaviorism Knowledge is constructed rather than acquired Knowledge is built on personal experiences. New information/knowledge is related to prior knowledge People actively construct or create their own knowledge, their own subjective representations of real objects, they don’t receive it passively. Learner is an information constructor and thereby responsible of this knowledge Assumes that learning process is : o Active o Contextualized o A search of meaning by the learner o An inherent social activity Historical Background of Constructivism  In 1710, Giambattista Vico published a treatise on the construction of knowledge. It illuminated the idea that knowledge is something that is constructed by the knower[…] (Lo 1996). It is through Vico's writings that we take the term 'constructivist'. His slogan, according to Von Glasersfeld, was, "The human mind can only know what the human mind has made"(1989, p. 3).  During the 1930’s and 1940’s, constructivism was the leading perspective among public school educators in USA. Manus (1996) draws a comparison between Sophists and Socratics and thereby gives a glimpse into the pre-history of constructivist approach to knowledge acquisition.  Sophists believed that: – Knowledge could be transmitted via lecture and modeling. – Knowledge resided outside the person and could be acquired […] Socratics on the other hand believed that: – Learning was an inner experience – Why we learned, was more important that what was learned. Pioneers of Constructivism  Originators and important contributors of this theory are: Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Lev Vygotsky Albert Bandura Paulo Freire Jürgen Habermas.  Jean Piaget (1896–1980)  French philosopher, father of the cognitive theory. He is, also considered as the parent of the constructivist theory.  Piaget (1969) argued that cognitive development and conceptual change occur as a result of interactions between existing cognitive structures and new experience.  Hence, Piaget is a cognitive constructivist.  Active Learning According to Piaget, cognitive development is based on: – Active learning: children’s active engagement with their environment leads them to the construction of the meaning and to learning.  Jerome Seymour Bruner (1915) Is a Jewish psychologist who has made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and to the general philosophy of education. According to him, learning is goal-directed and driven by curiosity. He adopted Piaget’s ideas about active learning to form the basis of his principles of instruction and discovery learning (Bruner 1960).  Discovery learning – Discovery learning: children are encouraged to discover the principles of some subjects such as mathematics through processes of exploration. Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) o Russian psychologist. o Even if he wrote in the 1930s, his work was not consistent with Soviet ideology, so his theories only began to receive wide recognition in the 1960s and 1970s.  Understanding arises via social processes. For example, interactions with parents and other adults lead to the creation of knowledge, which is internalized by children. (Garton 2004). Language is an important tool through which social interaction and knowledge construction occur.  Zone of Proximal Development The concept for which Vygotsky is best known is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This is an intellectual space where learner and teacher interact. The teacher can gauge intellectual development of the learner and provide the appropriate support to advance the learner’s thinking. Critiques of Social Constructivism Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute. Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction. Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters. Comparison of Behaviorism, Cognitivism & Constructivism  Mental Learning Role of Theory activity process teacher Stimulus–response Controls Behaviorism Irrelevant Reinforcement environment and External event stimuli Memory Applies cognitive Perception Surface and deep principles to Cognitivism attention learning facilitate cognitive processing Encoding processes Internal event Retuning schemata Supports and meaning-making Constructivism Meaning-making mental constructs Challenges existing Internal event ideas 48  Definition: Humanism:  Humanism is a philosophy of reason and science in the pursuit of knowledge  Humanism is a philosophy for people who think for themselves. They challenge and explore  Humanism is a philosophy for creating and determining one’s destiny  Humanism is a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of the whole person. 49  Humanism Origins The earliest record of the discussion of Humanist philosophy is found in Greek manuscripts around 600 BCE when some Greek scholars questioned the purpose of life and the influence of supernatural forces on life. The Greek philosopher, Protagoras, (490-420 BCE) wrote "Man is the measure of all things.“ The Humanist philosophy was revived in the 14th century Renaissance. Freedom of the human spirit from a thousand years of church domination A French philosopher, Pierre Charron (1541-1603) may have summarized the dominant theme of the Renaissance when he wrote in his Book of Wisdom, "The proper science and subject for man's contemplation is man himself." Literary Renaissance Cultural Psychological Philosophical Christian Modern Secular Religious  Humanistic psychology The humanistic approach in psychology developed as a rebellion against what some psychologists saw as limitations of the behaviorist and psychodynamic psychology. The humanistic approach is thus often called the “third force” in psychology after psychoanalysis and behaviorism (Maslow, 1968). Humanism rejected the assumption of the behaviorist perspective which is characterized as deterministic, focused on reinforcement of stimulus-response behavior and heavily dependent on animal research. Humanistic psychology also rejected the psychodynamic approach because it is also deterministic, with unconscious irrational and instinctive forces determining human thought and behavior. Both behaviorism and psychoanalysis are regarded as dehumanizing by humanistic psychologists. « My country is the world and my religion is to do good » Thomas paine  Key Humanist Values and Principles Humanists believe that nothing is more important than people. Humanist value the human powers of reasoning , imagining, and love. Humanist highlight the importance of concern for the world and for the future Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving.  Humanism Beliefs Humanists believe that there is not enough evidence to decide whether or not God exists. Humanists believe that this is the only life humans have. Humanists stress that morals are a product of human imagination and reason. Figures in Humanism Maslow's hierarchy of needs  Self Actualization "What a man can be, he must be.“ A. Maslow 1954 Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Maslow described self-actualized people as those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of. The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth that is present throughout a person’s life.  Mezirow Jack Mezirow (1927) is an American and emeritus Professor sociologist of Adult and Continuing Education at Teachers College,Columbia University Transformative Learning: is an adult education based theory that suggests ways in which adults make meaning of their lives. 59  Paulo Freire  (1921-1997) Brazilian educationalist: pioneer of adult literacy programmes as a means of raising the consciousness (conscientization) of South American peasants and urban underclass. Critic of the "banking" model of education, in which the elite own and construct the knowledge, and the poor are excluded.  Concientization  focuses on achieving an in-depth understanding of the world 60  Carl Rogers  (1902-1987) Principally known as the founder of person-centred psychotherapy and almost the inventor of counselling, also a leading figure in the development of humanistic approaches to education. “though I am very well aware of the incredible amount of destructive, cruel, malevolent, violence in the streets,I do not find that this evil is inherent in human nature.” “ The only person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change.” “They are curious about their world until and unless this curiousity is blunted by their experience in our educational system…”  John Holt: (1923-1985) Radical thinker and maths teacher,best known for how children fail. 62  Malcolm Knowles. adult education and proponent of andragogy 63 Humanism and Education Making the school everybody’s house! 64 65  Purpose of Humanistic Education To offer a foundation for personal growth and development so that learning will continue throughout life in a self-directed manner (lifelong learners). To provide intelligence, self-discipline, self-respect, creativity, high motivation, affirmative attitude, team player, joyful living, and good health. Education is about creating a need within the child, or instilling within the child self-motivation Humanism is about rewarding yourself 66 Principles of Humanistic Education As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view of education: 1) Students' learning should be self-directed. 2) Schools should produce students who want and know how to learn. 3) The only form of meaningful evaluation is self- evaluation. 4) Feelings, as well as knowledge, are important in the learning process. 5) Students learn best in a nonthreatening environment.  How to implement the humanist view towards education? Emphasise the "natural desire" of everyone to learn. Allow the student to have a choice in selection of tasks and activities Help students learn to set realistic goals Have students participate in cooperative learning groups Acts as a facilitator for group discussions Create and maintain a positive learning environment Be a positive role model 68 Differentiated Instruction 69 Meaningful engaged learning Cooperative learning Learning Styles  Types of activities Brainstorming/Discussion Drawing/Artwork Field Trips Games Music Project/Problem-based Instruction Reciprocal Teaching/Cooperative Learning Promotes self- Role play/Drama/ discovery, increased Storytelling Visualization/Guided Imagery motivation, creates a Visuals positive learning Writing/Journals environment, gives choice in learning style, and produces lifelong learners. 73  The Open Classroom Goals - individual growth, critical thinking, self-reliance, co- operation, commitment to lifelong learning. Most important person - student not teacher. Not curriculum bound Not age/grade locked. Student-centred - intensive, but relaxed teacher/pupil contact. de-emphasises schedules. Almost no control or competition Difficult to draw the line between chaos and order, rebelliousness and expression of rights. Productive and unproductive time. Students tend to have better self-concepts and are more creative and co- operative, but academic achievements are lacking. Some reactions to humanistic education  Experience Needed Humanistic teachers aim for good things, but these are not clearly defined. Also not easily measured. Humanistic approaches are highly dependent upon the capabilities of the teacher. Open schools do not deliver academic performance.  Group Emphasis Students spend much of the time in class working in groups. This tends to lead students to discussing matters unimportant to the topic. It leads to extroverted students monopolizing the discussion, giving a large disadvantage to more introverted students. Students of low achievement often feel embarrassment or shame in a group, as they fear lowering the group's overall performance.  Lack of Competitiveness the idea of competition is de-emphasized. The result is that students learning from a humanist approach are less competitive compared to students learning in traditional schools. This places students from humanist schools at a disadvantage upon graduation when they enter into the workplace or university. humanist teaching does not lead to better performance Hemisphericity & Cerebral Dominance The Brain The Neuron  Howard Gardner’s MI Theory. too limited Linguistic Mathematical  Verbal / Linguistic Word Smart Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language – End States: Poet, Journalist  Logical Mathematical (Number/Reasoning Smart): Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning – End States: Scientist, Mathematician  Musical / Rhythmic Music Smart: Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness – End States: Composer, Violinist  Visual Spatial Picture Smart Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions – End States: Navigator, Sculptor  Bodily / Kinesthetic Body Smart Abilities to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully – End States: actor, Athlete  Intrapersonal Self-Smart Access to one’s own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and draw on them to guide behavior – End States: Personal with detailed, accurate self- knowledge  Interpersonal People Smart Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people – End States: Therapist, Salesman  Naturalist Nature Smart Abilities to recognize plants and animals, to make distinctions in the natural world, to understand systems and define categories – End States: Botanist, Farmer, Hunter Existential  MI theory proposes a major transformation in the way schools are run. It suggests for teachers to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using: – music, – cooperative learning, – art activities, – role play, – multimedia, – field trips, – inner reflection… Verbal- discussions, debates, journal writing, conferences, essays, Linguistic stories, poems, storytelling, listening, reading Logical- calculations, experiments, comparisons, number games, Mathematical using evidence, formulating hypotheses, deductive/inductive reasoning Spatial concept maps, graphs, charts, art projects, metaphorical thinking, visualization, videos, visuals Bodily- role-playing, dance, athletics, manipulatives, hands-on Kinesthetic demonstrations, concept miming Musical playing music, singing, rapping, whistling, clapping, analyzing sounds and music Interpersonal community-involvement, discussions, cooperative learning, games, peer tutoring, social activities Intrapersonal student choice, journal writing, self-evaluation, personal instruction, independent study, reflecting Naturalist ecological field trips, environmental study, caring for plants/animals, outdoor work, pattern recognition The Wheel of Domains McKenzi VARK/ VAK/ VAKT Every now and then, the teacher, stands back and takes a look at what’s going on in his classroom. Today, in pairs or small groups, his students are working on projects. Sarah and James are poring over a stack of books from the library, writing notes on index cards. Shonese draws detailed illustrations, while Tony designs charts and graphs on the computer. Pedro is bouncing his pencil eraser on his desk and tapping his foot against the chair leg. Mr. Oakes knows this helps Pedro to stay focused on his reading. Clara is so excited about explaining her ideas to her partner that she’s twirling around her braid of hair as if it were a propeller. Megan is staring out the window, watching the traffic move along the busy street that borders the school. Mr. Oakes doesn’t call her back to work quite yet. He knows Megan needs this dream time to relax and allow her ideas to percolate. At the back of the classroom, good friends Percy and David are laughing and fooling around. He remembers their huge disagreement from yesterday and knows that neither can accomplish any work until the friendship is reestablished. Slowly, he heads to the back of the room, knowing that his presence alone will remind them to get back to work. Mr. Oakes notices that Mariela is finally engaged in her group’s project. It took the stack of letters written by seniors at the senior center about her project to capture her imagination and inspire her research. “These kids are working hard,” Mr. Oakes thinks. Only a middle school teacher would recognize that amid all these varied activities, real learning is taking place. CONTENT 1. Gestalt Psychology 2. Cognitive Theory 3. Cognitive Instruction Theories a. Piaget – Theory of Cognitive Development b. Bruner – Discovery Learning c. Difference Between Bruner and Piaget d. Ausubel – Meaningful Learning Theory 4. Cognitivist Coffee Min-kyung, Lee Melissa Inglis-Elliott 1. Gestalt Psychology Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology. Gestalt is roughly translated as “configuration,” or “pattern,” and emphasizes “the whole” of human experience. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) the memory system as an active organized processor (2) prior knowledge 2. Cognitivism : developed as a reaction to behaviorism. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because they felt that behaviorists thought learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the importance of thinking. As opposed to Behaviorists, Cognitivists focus more on the internal mental processes (including insight, information processing, memory, and perception) and connections that take place during learning. Aspect Cognitivism Behaviorism View of Learning Internal mental process (including Change in behavior Process insight, information processing, memory, perception) Locus of Learning Internal cognitive structuring Stimuli in external environment Purpose in Develop capacity and skills to Produce behavioral change Education learn better in desired direction Four orientations to learning (after Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 138)  Cf. Chomsky’s black box Comparison between Cognitivism and Behaviorism 3. Cognitive Instruction Theories a. Jean Piaget While recognizing the contribution of environment, Piaget explored changes in internal cognitive structure. His theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development.  Cognitive Development Stages -> His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. b. Jerome Bruner The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience “generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions.” (Bruner, 1957, p. 234).  Discovery Learning Theory Important Outcomes of Learning Concepts and categories Problem-solving procedures invented Identify variables, collect and interpret previously by the culture data  Generate hypotheses in order to better describe and understand Ability to “invent” these things for oneself relationships between concepts The continuous cyclical process of learning requires learners to interpret the data, reject hypotheses, and make conclusions about information. *Criticism: For discovery to take place, students must have basic knowledge about the problem and must know how to apply problem-solving strategies.  Piaget considered human beings go through a 4-step cycle of change. The process itself is set and automatic. Bruner, on the other hand, did not believe in stages. He merely defined different representations or modes of transference of knowledge, and the environment played a supporting role to the internal capabilities of the learner (Driscoll, 2000).  c. David Ausubel A cognitive learning theorist who advanced a theory which contrasted meaningful learning from rote learning. “To learn meaningfully, students must relate new knowledge (concepts) to what they already know. He viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to environment.”  Meaningful Learning Theory Ausubel stresses meaningful learning, as opposed to rote learning or memorization; and reception, or received knowledge, rather than discovery learning. Key concept : Cognitive structure Learning to Ausubel is bringing something new into our cognitive structure and attaching it to our existing knowledge that is located there. This is how we make meaning, and this was the focus of his work. 4. Cognitivist Coffee If you were at Starbucks and these individuals each walked in an ordered something... what would they order, why, how might they place their order (use theory to inform their actions)? How do you view the process of learning? Where is the locus of learning? What is the purpose of education?  How do you view the process of learning? (Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception, e.g., Ausubel): The exchange between “Dr. B.” and “Joe.” Where is the locus of learning? (Internal cognitive structuring, e.g., Piaget): The woman on her phone talking about her boyfriend, who sometimes acts like he is 5 (“Preoperational”) rather than 25. What is the purpose of education? (Develop capacity and skills to learn better, e.g., Bruner): The woman forgets her password and decides to use a mnemonic device to remember it better in the future.  References http://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(learning_theory http://www.angelo.edu/dept/citr/faculty_resources/Online_Teaching/section_13.php http://www.acrwebsite.org/search/view-conference-proceedings.aspx?Id=11626 http://www.simplypsychology.org/language.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_learning http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_mills_internet_1/0,11172,2580422-content,00.html http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/constructivism/bruner.html http://psychology.about.com/sitesearch.htm?q=jerome+bruner+&SUName=psychology http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/l/bl-piaget-stages.htm http://www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-psychology.html http://fatmaoasis.blogspot.com/2010/08/behaviorism.html http://lisettewillemsen.wordpress.com/2012/03/03/behavioris/ http://tinank.yourweb.de/walden/?p=229 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology http://www.docstoc.com/docs/84160228/JEAN-PIAGET-Stages-of-Cognitive-Development http://www.psych.nyu.edu/bruner/index.html http://proto-knowledge.blogspot.com/2011_12_01_archive.html http://oceanlifediscovery.wikispaces.com/learning+model http://cmap.ihmc.us/publications/researchpapers/theorycmaps/theoryunderlyingconceptmaps.htm http://cmap.ihmc.us/publications/researchpapers/theorycmaps/Fig2RoteVSMeaningful-large.png http://www.education.gov.uk/complexneeds/modules/Module-2.2-Considering-communication-and-interaction/D/m06p020d.html http://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory) http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/5352 http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.htm http://myenglishpages.com/blog/description-of-cognitivism/ http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/bahavior.htm http://ryan2point0.wordpress.com/tag/cognitivism/ http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~cfs/305_html/Gestalt/Woman.html http://jovelyn.wordpress.com/2009/06/17/chomsky’s-theory-of-language/ Behaviourism Behaviourism  All things should be looked at from the perspective of behaviour.  Behaviourism argues that there is no mind, no thoughts, no feelings, and the only important thing to consider is behaviour. Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)  Ivan Pavlov  Edward Thorndike  John B. Watson  B.F. Skinner Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)  Ivan Pavlov  Edward Thorndike  John B. Watson  B.F. Skinner Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)  Ivan Pavlov  Edward Thorndike  John B. Watson  B.F. Skinner Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)  Ivan Pavlov  Edward Thorndike  John B. Watson  B.F. Skinner Ivan Petrovich Pavlov  Born Sept 14, 1849  Died Feb 27, 1936  born in Ryazan, Russia  physiologist, psychologist, and physician  awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research on the digestive system Edward Lee Thorndike  Born August 31, 1874  Died August 9, 1949  Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts  Studied animal behaviour and the learning process  led to the theory of connectionism  Laying the foundation for modern educational psychology. Cats in Puzzle Boxes Cats in Puzzle Boxes  Thorndike looked at how cats learned to escape from puzzle boxes  The puzzle box experiments were motivated by Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals made use of extraordinary faculties such as insight in their problem solving. Cats in Puzzle Boxes  Thorndike's instruments in answering this question were learning curves revealed by plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box  if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curve as an abrupt drop;  while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradual curves. Cats in Puzzle Boxes  His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning. Cats in Puzzle Boxes  So it was trial-and-error  These led Thorndike to formulate first his Principles of Learning and then his Theory of Learning that became the foundation of modern educational psychology. Principles of Learning  Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning:  The Law of Effect states that the likely recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or punishment.  The Law of Recency states that the most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence.  The Law of Exercise stated that stimulus- response associations are strengthened through repetition. Law of Effect  "Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur"  Thorndike, E. L. (1911). “Animal intelligence: Experimental Studies”. p. 244 Theory of Learning  Thorndike created 13 basic rules  I want us to pause after each one and check if you think this is a universal principle.  Also see if there is some technology or teaching approach you can imagine that might help support this rule Theory of Learning 1. The most basic form of learning is trial and error learning. Theory of Learning 2. Learning is incremental not insightful. Theory of Learning 3. Learning is not mediated by ideas. Theory of Learning 4. All mammals learn in the same manner. Theory of Learning 5. Law of Readiness: Interference with goal directed behaviour causes frustration and causing someone to do something they do not want to do is also frustrating.  a. When someone is ready to perform some act, to do so is satisfying.  b. When someone is ready to perform some act, not to do so is annoying.  c. When someone is not ready to perform some act and is forced to do so, it is annoying. Theory of Learning 6. Law of Exercise: We learn by doing. We forget by not doing, although to a small extent only.  a. Connections between a stimulus and a response are strengthened as they are used. (law of use)  b. Connections between a stimulus and a response are weakened as they are not used. (law of disuse) Theory of Learning 7. Law of Effect: If the response in a connection is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is considerably increased whereas if followed by an annoying state of affairs, then the strength of the connection is marginally decreased. Theory of Learning 8. Multiple Responses: A learner would keep trying multiple responses to solve a problem before it is actually solved. Theory of Learning 9. Set or Attitude: What the learner already possesses, like prior learning experiences, present state of the learner, etc., while it begins learning a new task. Theory of Learning 10. Prepotency of Elements: Different responses to the same environment would be evoked by different perceptions of the environment which act as the stimulus to the responses. Different perceptions would be subject to the prepotency of different elements for different perceivers. Theory of Learning 11. Response from analogy: New problems are solved by using solution techniques employed to solve analogous problems. Theory of Learning 12. Associative Shifting: Let stimulus S be paired with response R. Now, if stimulus Q is presented simultaneously with stimulus S repeatedly, then stimulus Q is likely to get paired with response R. Theory of Learning 13. Belongingness: If there is a natural relationship between the need state of an organism and the effect caused by a response, learning is more effective than if the relationship is unnatural. John Broadus Watson  Born Jan 9, 1878  Died Sept 25, 1958  Born in Greenville, South Carolina  American psychologist  established the psychological school of behaviourism  “Little Albert” experiment The Behaviorist Manifesto  In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" — sometimes called "The Behaviorist Manifesto". In this article, Watson outlined the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism". The Behaviorist Manifesto  The first paragraph of the article concisely described Watson's behaviorist position:  “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.” "Little Albert" experiment  Occurred in 1920  One of the most controversial experiments in the history of psychology  It was an experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans Rosalie Rayner Albert B. John B. Watson "Little Albert" experiment  Watson and Rayner selected an infant named Albert, at approximately 9 months of age, he was tested and was judged to show no fear when successively observing a number of live animals (e.g., a rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey), and various inanimate objects (e.g., cotton, human masks, a burning newspaper). "Little Albert" experiment  He was, however, judged to show fear whenever a long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer just behind his back. "Little Albert" experiment  Two months after testing Albert's apparently unconditioned reactions to various stimuli, Watson and Rayner attempted to condition him to fear a white rat. This was done by presenting a white rat to Albert, followed by a loud clanging sound (of the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert touched the animal. After seven pairings of the rat and noise (in two sessions, one week apart), Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the rat was presented without the loud noise. However  Ben Harris in “Whatever Happened to Little Albert?” 1979 says that “critical reading of Watson and Rayner's (1920) report reveals little evidence that Albert developed a rat phobia” Little Albert Video  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVt0k9IPQ-A Burrhus Frederic Skinner  Born March 20, 1904  Died August 18, 1990  Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania  American psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform and poet.  Innovated his own philosophy of science called Radical Behaviorism Radical Behaviorism  Skinner views (Radical behaviourism) differed from other behaviourists (Methodological behaviourism) in that he felt that thoughts and feelings could be taken into account when considering that psychology of the individual Radical Behaviorism  Radical behaviourism seeks to understand behaviour as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing consequences.  Reinforcement processes were emphasized by Skinner, and were seen as primary in the shaping of behaviour.  A common misconception is that negative reinforcement is some form of punishment. Radical Behaviorism  Positive reinforcement is the strengthening of behaviour by the application of some event (e.g., praise after some behaviour is performed),  Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behaviour by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you).  Both types of reinforcement strengthen behaviour, or increase the probability of a behaviour reoccurring. Radical Behaviorism  Punishment and extinction have the effect of weakening behaviour, or decreasing the probability of a behaviour reoccurring, by the application of an aversive event (punishment) or the removal of a rewarding event (extinction). Inventor  Cumulative Recorder  Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  Teaching Machine  Air Crib Cumulative Recorder Cumulative Recorder  an instrument used to automatically record behaviour graphically  The needle would start at the bottom of the page and the drum would turn the roll of paper horizontally. Each response would result in the marking needle moving vertically along the paper one tick.  Operant Conditioning Chamber Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  A box large enough to easily accommodate the animal being used as a subject (including lab rats, pigeons, and primates).  It contains one or more levers which an animal can press, one or more stimulus lights and one or more places in which reinforcers like food can be delivered.  It is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid distracting stimuli. Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  In one of Skinner’s experiments a hungry rat was introduced into the box. When the lever was pressed by the rat a small pellet of food was dropped onto a tray. The rat soon learned that when he pressed the lever he would receive some food. In this experiment the lever pressing behaviour is reinforced by food. Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”) Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  If pressing the lever is reinforced (the rat gets food) when a light is on but not when it is off, responses (pressing the lever) continue to be made in the light but seldom, if at all, in the dark. The rat has formed discrimination between light and dark. When one turns on the light, a response occurs, but that is not a Pavlovian conditioned reflex response. Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  In this experiment Skinner demonstrated the ideas of "operant conditioning" and "shaping behaviour." Unlike Pavlov's "classical conditioning," where an existing behaviour (salivating for food) is shaped by associating it with a new stimulus (ringing of a bell or a metronome), operant conditioning is the rewarding of an act that approaches a new desired behavior. Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  Skinner's operant chamber allowed him to explore the rate of response as a dependent variable, as well as develop his theory of schedules of reinforcement. The first operant chambers were attached to cumulative records on drums producing characteristic pauses, scallops, and other lines. How pigeons get to be superstitious Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  Skinner also used pigeons in his experiments Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  In one experiment he decided to drop food into the box at completely random times, independent of any behaviour on the part of the pigeons.  Amazingly the pigeons behaviour soon started to display a consistent type of behaviour. Each pigeon did different things. Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)  One circled counter-clockwise, another spun around in circles; seventy-five percent of them exhibited some kind of odd behaviour.  Skinner concluded that the pigeons had incorrectly associated their behaviour at the times of the food drops to the food appearing, and had become 'superstitious'. Teaching Machine Teaching Machine  In 1954 B.F. Skinner embarked upon a series of studies designed to improve teaching methods for spelling, math, and other school subjects by using a mechanical device that would surpass the usual classroom experience.  He believed the classroom had disadvantages because the rate of learning for different students was variable and reinforcement was also delayed due to the lack of individual attention.  Since personal tutors for every student was usually unavailable, Skinner developed a theory of programmed learning that was to be implemented by teaching machines. Teaching Machine  The teaching machine is composed of mainly a program, which is a system of combined teaching and test items that carries the student gradually through the material to be learned.  The "machine" is composed by a fill-in-the-blank method on either a workbook or in a computer. If the subject is correct, he/she gets reinforcement and moves on to the next question. If the answer is incorrect, the subject studies the correct answer to increase the chance of getting reinforced next time. Teaching Machine  The teaching machine is merely a device for presenting the set of frames of which the program is composed.  However, it is not supplementary but all-inclusive. The program will do all the teaching through a response/reward mechanism.  Skinner also noted that the learning process should be divided into a large number of very small steps and reinforcement must be dependent upon the completion of each step.  Skinner suggested that the machine itself should not teach, but bring the student into contact with the person who composed the material it presented. He believed this was the best possible arrangement for learning because it took into account the rate of learning for each individual student. Skinner on Education 1. People have a fear of 1. Give the learner immediate failure. feedback. 3. Skinner Break down the task into 3. The task is not broken down into small enough steps. says that small steps. 5. There is a lack of directions. 5. Repeat thethere directionsare as many times as possible. 7. There is also a lack of five main 7. Work from the most simple clarity in the directions. obstacles to the most complex tasks. 9. Positive reinforcement is lacking. 9. to learning