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Introduction

• Instructional materials are vital for learning in subjects such as Math, English, Science, Filipino and Social Studies.

Definition of Production

• It is a process of combining various material and immaterial inputs to create something for consumption.
• Production involves creating an output, a good, or a service.
• The output has value and contributes to the utility of individuals.

Instructional Materials and Resources

• All resources available to both teachers and learners.
• Resources are employed to facilitate teaching and learning.
• Encompass objects, things, people, and places.
• These resources are used to promote teaching and learning across various subjects.

Categories of Instructional Materials

• Resources that offer content including charts, graphs, audio recordings, print materials, globes, maps, and painting.
• Resources for presenting content which include audio and video recorders, bulletin boards, flannel boards, slide projectors, computers, and television.
• Human resources includes individuals who provide various services in the teaching and learning process (professionals and non-professionals).
• Non-human resources include use of physical facilities and instructional materials.
• Physical facilities and instructional materials serve as tools through which stimuli are passed or attained.
• Projected and electronic media are subdivided into software and hardware, which require use of electronic devices.
• Software materials includes of audio tapes, video tapes, transparencies, slides, and filmstrips.
• Harware materials are audio tape recorders, video tape recorders, slide projecotre film and overhead projector.

Teaching Aids and Instructional Materials for 21st Century

• Teaching aids and instructional materials are learning and teaching resources.
• The resources can be used in a hybrid online-offline educational setting powered by humans and technology.
• Screens and computers connected via the internet (teaching aids) and educational media (instructional materials) are used.
• Internet and Communication Technologies (ICTs) include new ecosystem of tools that deliver and process information.

Classification of Instructional Materials

• Non-electronic are chalkboards, flip boards, slates, print photos and media, and telescopes.
• Electronic/digital are computers, mobiles, clicker devices, internet-powered apps, PowerPoint slideshows, augmented reality/virtual reality goggles, AV-room equipment, and music/art-based content delivery.
• Auditory aids are radios, tape recorders, CD players (now redundant).
• Visual aids are slides, projectors, and digital screens (now mostly digital screens only).
• Audiovisual aids include include Youtube, Reels, Ted Talks, live stream apps, documentary repositories, Instagram guides and TikTok.
• Audiovisual and tactile aids included 3D models, field visits, toys, lab apparatus, plant/animal/rock specimens.
• Collaborative/Social aids include online classrooms, forums, Facebook pages, Quora spaces, subreddits, virtual meetups, study and support groups, websites that allow collaboration, score/progress tracking websites, feedback websites, and artificial intelligence

Instructional Materials

• These are items that assist and describe the information aspect of teaching
• Examples of instructional materials are textbooks, worksheets, 3D models, charts, and infographics.
• Basically any material, any information containing resources, that the teacher uses while instructing are instructional materials.
• Testing materials are used because they help the retention and learning of information.

Recomendations for All Social Studies Teachers in 21st Century

• Social Studies teachers should receive mass training to operate and maintain electrical equipment
• Governments at all levels should set aside a percentage of annual spending on education for the procurement and maintenance of instructional materials.
• School authorities should encourage Social Studies teachers with adequate financial and moral support to improvise instructional materials using available local resources.
• Adequate time should be allocated to Social Studies teachers to enable them efficiently to utilize arrays of community resources available to promote effective teaching and learning.

Rationale for Design

• Instructional goals are worked towards to achieve educational ends.
• A course with instructional materials should first work on character and be practical with strategies.

Guiding Theories

• Kemp's Design Model guides flexibility
• Project-Based Learning
• Gagne's Nine Events (Madeline Hunter Model)
• Bloom's Taxonomy

Instruction vs Teaching aids

• Teaching and instructional materials are similar and work to reach goals. However, their separation is unneccessary.
• Definitions of "instructional material” is generally restricted to the literature on pedagogy.
• IMs are designed in the context of course-learning goals. IMs are designed to align with learning objectives and outcomes, whereas teaching aids are not always designed to meet course-based goals.
• TA is used more as a delivery method and context than a subject specific aid.

Examples

• If a teacher used copies of a book in their class, the book is a teaching aid. If the book is a resource, it's an instructional material.
• If course-based learning goal involved "using a microscope" a microscope is an educational material.
• A teachers could use a microscope as a "teaching aid" so students understood it looks in class.

Digital Learning Sphere

• Teaching aids and instructional materials were focused on a physical classroom.
• Classroom definitions have evolved via alternatives like Zoom lectures.
• A typical class digitally includes studends on screen.

How to use the Internet

• Students can use the internet for help from Wikipedia, Coursera, Udemy, Khan Academy, or ChatGPT. These are alternatives to TAs and IMs.
• Students prefer autonomy in learning.
• Teachers an curate internet resources and lesson plans for students to learn
• The search for content relies memory.
• Online tools, graph generators, software, podcasts, content, lists, threads and online books
• The main advatange is diverse content for students to explore.
• Understanding internet browsing works an IM and TA. Most pages are connected.

Benefits of teaching aids and instructional materials

• Aids help explain examples, features, contexts and the whole experience
• Some academics such as Biology are easier to understand via their theory of counterparts like circuits, anatomy, flora, etc.
• Putting dense information in a human content context can motivate students.
• IMs can motivate students in the levels of a classroom.

Lesson Planning

• A lesson plan is the instructor's plan of action for the class with structure
• The plan needs three parts--the aims and objectives, classroom events, and assessments.
• A teacher should be prepared with thought regarding their class and answer questions for students regarding it

Cognitive Learning Theories

• Cognitive Learning describes how students think in new situations. It uses new experiences.

David P. Ausubel Cognitive Learning

• David Ausubel was born in 1918, and he grew up in Brooklyn NY.
• He attended Pennsylvania for premed and psych
• In 1973, he retired with focus time to devote full time to his psychiatric practice
• Ausubel's main interests in psychiatry have been general psychopathology, ego development, drug addiction, and forensic psychiatry.
• He received the Thorndike Award from the American Psychological Association.
• David P. Ausube supported the theory that pupils form & organise knowledge by themselves, and he emphasized the importance of verbal learning which is effective for pupils of the age 11 or 12 & above.
• Pupils gradually learn to associate new knowledge with existing concepts in their mental structures.
• It's important To ensure meaningful teaching, therefore avoid rote facts memorising. Instead Pupils should try to manipulate ideas.

Advance Organizer

• Presents an information overview to cover all during the course
• It can be classified as exposition or comparison type

Exposition Type

• When presenting new materials use the beginning of lesson
• Presents several encompassing generalisations where detailed contents can be added later

Comparison Type

• It is Useful when the knowledge to be presented is new to pupils
• It compares new material with knowledge already known by emphasising similarities
• Ausubel's teaching approach is deductive in nature

Ausubel's Meaningful Learning

• A concern on how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations during activities
• Meaningful learning results when new information links with the current information in the learner's head

The processes of meaningful learning

Ausubel proposed four processes.

• Derivative subsumption
• Correlative subsumption
• Superordinate learning
• Combinatorial learning

Derivative subsumption

• Describes a situation where the new information learns an example of what they already know

Correlative subsumption

• More "valuable" learning with derivative subsumption due to enriching a concept

Superordinate learning

• You already knew several lots of examples but are only learning the concept

Combinatorial learning

• Desribes the derivation of a new idea based on other pre-existing knowlege

General Guidelines for Ausubel

• General ideas of a subject must be presented before specifics and detialed info.
• Instructional materials should integrate new material with previously presented information.
• Instructors should incorporate advance organisers when teaching a new concept
• Instructors should use a number of examples and focus on both similarities and differences.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives

• Educational Taxonomy is classified into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor/behavioral.
• Bloom's Taxonomy Of Cognitive Domain (1956) comes from Benjamin Bloom and involves arranging information in a cognitive domain

In cognitive domain

• Knowledge or recall – knowledge of terminology and conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria and methodologies, principles, theories, and structures. Verbs: define, memorize, record, list, name, write, identify, distinguish
• Comprehension – relate to translation, interpretation, and extrapolation.
• Application requires the student to solve or explain a problem or be able to apply what has been learned to other scenarios. .Verbs: apply, demonstrate, sketch, translate interpret, employ, play, news, dramatize, practice operate
• Analysis- objectives relate to breaking a whole into parts
• Synthesis involves putting parts together in a new form or operation. Verbs: create, hypothesize, invent, think of a way, plan, formulate, construct, assemble, propose, design
• Evaluation is when someone judges based on facts and data. Verbs: judge, appraise, evaluate, measure, defend, assess, indicate, score, select, rate

Revision to Blooms

(1990's) Lorin Anderson revisited Bloom's taxonomy

1. Category names were revised from nouns to verbs
2. The last two stages were ordered differently. Evaluation becomes after synthesis

Anderson

• Remembering: it is a Learner's ability to recall information
• Understanding: it is the Learner's ability to understand information
• Applying: A learner's ability to use information
• Analysing: Breaking down its essenital parts
• Evaluating: Judging
• Creating: Ability to create a new project from elemets

Social Cognitive and Constuctivist Views of Learning

• Learning is a social process based on observation ,dialogue, and influence

Terms

• Social Learning Theory
• Acquisition of knowledge
• Observable performance
• Social Cognitive Theory
• Enactive learning
• Vicarious learning.

Others Learning

• Attention helps with Learning
• The retention of ideas
• Reproduction
• Motivation and reinforcement
• Vicarious reinforcement

Facts of influence

• Developmental level of learner
• Status & prestige of the model
• Similarity of models
• Vicarious consequences
• Outcome expectations
• Value of the goal
• Self-efficacy

Observational Teaching

• Help attention
• Learned habits
• Strengthening / weakening
• Modeling
• Arousing emotions

Learning Theory

• Think of a time when you learned via another person & analyze for status and similarity to yourself.
• Consider motivation was involved in learning

Constructivism

• Constructivism is rooted in cognitive pysch & biology that builds off life experience to build knowledge
• It challenges thought to integrate experience and create innovative work
• It encourages discovery learning via task based or colloboratd

Theory

• The Student is creative
• Students culture creates their version of truth
• Students role is responsibility to learn
• Students motivation allows skils from experiments

Montessori

• Montessori studied children in Rome, and she created the Casa de Bambini in 1907
• Children eager to learn in a supportive environment
• The methods created peer learning and created long periods of discovery
• A teacher, Student and Environment creates independance

4 Planes of Development

• The Montessori educational method features plans for differnt phases of life

Age 0-6

• First Plane
• Early childhood is the first stage when they need order
• Also construction of personal traits, and independence

Age 6-12

• Second Plane
• Childhood of constricting logic
• a thirst for justice

Age 12-18

• Third Plane
• Adolescence is the time of social constructs, assessment

18-24

• Fouth Plane
• The adult years of understanding and values

Constructivism and the Montessori Method

• Constructivism links experimental learning and challenges that create innovative work.
• The Montessori Method naturally is eager to learn throughout play with real experiences.

Theories of Instruction

• Instructional design is the principles of learning and is related to instruction.
• Background on these theories included ancient contributors like Socrates and Plato

History

• 13th Century: St. Thomas Aquinas
• used freewill
• 17th Century: John Locke
• expanded blankness for reason

Modern Contributors

• John Dewey advocated "learning occurs best when doing", and Skinner was a main factor.
• Ralph Tyler
• using machine training. B.F. Skinner
• S-R, feedback and reinforcement Benjamin Bloom Taxonomy: Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor David Merill
• component display theory
• instructional material
• Types of personlaities and learning

Behaviorism

• Christopher Green
• Don Clark Gary DeMar Petrina Quinn
• Ivan Pavlov (1924) Edward Thorndike John Watson B. F. Skinner Cognitivism
• Judith Conway
• David Ausubel (Advanced Organizers)
• dgar Dale (Cone of Experience)
• George Miller (Information Processing)
• Allan Paivio (Dual Coding Theory)
• Joseph Novak (Concept Mapping)

Constructivism

• Bartlett (1932) •Merril
• Jean Piaget
• Jerome Bruner
• George Kelly
• Maria Montessori

Constructivism

Bartlett pioneered that approach.

• Learners should interpret perception of experience" (Jonasson, 1991):
• Constructivism helps learn social experiences. and to social experiences.

Realistic Constructivism

• learners build mental structures located in the environment.

Radical Constructivism

: cognition discovers realiity