The Adaptive Mind - Learning Chapter 8 - PDF

The Adaptive Mind Chapter 8 Learning  –What is learning? –Nonassociative learning –Habituation/Sensitization Agenda –Associative Learning –Classical conditioning –Operant conditioning –Observational learning What is learning? – A relativ...

The Adaptive Mind Chapter 8 Learning  –What is learning? –Nonassociative learning –Habituation/Sensitization Agenda –Associative Learning –Classical conditioning –Operant conditioning –Observational learning What is learning? – A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience – Changes are stable – Change in behavior – Due to experience How do animals respond to their environments? – Reflexes – Instincts – Learned behaviors Stimulus: Anything that elicits a response/reaction Response: The behavior that occurs in the presence of a stimulus Reflexes – Inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli – Controlled by nervous system circuits – Fast, automatic, inflexible Instincts – An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli – Fixed action pattern – More complex than reflexes – Once they begin, they run until completion  Three Types of Learning Learning Nonassociative Associative Observational learning learning Learning Habituation Sensitization Classical Operant conditioning conditioning  üWhat is learning? –Nonassociative learning –Habituation/Sensitization Agenda –Associative Learning –Classical conditioning –Operant conditioning –Observational learning Nonassociative Learning – Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a stimulus – Two important types: – Habituation – Sensitization Habituation – Reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease – Occurs in response to milder stimuli Habituation vs. Sensory Adaptation – Sensory Adaptation = Tendency to pay less attention to a nonchanging source of stimulus (sensation and perception) – Habituation = A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease 12 Sensitization – An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus – Occurs in response to stronger stimuli  üWhat is learning? üNonassociative learning üHabituation/Sensitization Agenda –Associative Learning –Classical conditioning –Operant conditioning –Observational learning Associative Learning – The formation of associations, or connections, among stimuli and behaviors – Two important types: – Classical conditioning – Operant conditioning Unconditioned: Something that occurs without learning (reflexive) Conditioned: Something that must be learned Classical Conditioning – Associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time  Classical conditioning Unconditioned Conditioned UCS CS Elicits a response Elicits a response after Stimulus reflexively, being learned through without prior experience experience UCR CR A learned behavior A reflexive behavior Response following a stimulus, following a stimulus, requires prior requires no prior experience experience Classical conditioning phenomena Acquisition: development of a learned response (CR) Classical conditioning phenomena Acquisition: development of a learned response (CR) §Contiguity: CS must occur before UCS and close together in time Classical conditioning phenomena Acquisition: development of a learned response (CR) §Contiguity: CS must occur before UCS and close together in time...... Classical conditioning phenomena Acquisition: development of a learned response (CR) §Contiguity: CS must occur before UCS and close together in time §Contingency: CS and UCS must reliably occur together Classical conditioning phenomena Extinction: reduction of a learned response (CR) – CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS only) Classical conditioning phenomena Extinction: reduction of a learned response (CR) – Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of conditioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS only) Classical conditioning phenomena Inhibition: A conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – The CS predicts that the UCS will NOT occur Classical conditioning phenomena Latent inhibition: A familiar CS à slower (later) learning An unfamiliar CS à quicker (immediate) learning Classical Conditioning Phenomena Generalization: The tendency to respond to neutral stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus Classical Conditioning Phenomena Discrimination: A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli Classical Conditioning Phenomena Classical Conditioning Phenomena Higher-order conditioning A stimuli + A conditioned stimulus à Conditioned responses Watson’s Experiment with Little Albert (1920) Give me anyone, and I can make them into anything “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select — doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” –John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930 Cognitive and biological influence on classical conditioning – Early behaviorists – Advocate the roles of nurture (vs. nature) – Only focus on studying external behaviors – Believed that behavior followed the same rules in all organisms – ? Rats à Humans The element of surprise! – Learning takes place more quickly when the association between the CS and the UCS is relatively surprising and unexpected. Applications of classical conditioning –Overcoming fear – Exposure therapy –Addiction treatment – Unpairing CS and CR Applications of classical conditioning –Overcoming fear – Exposure therapy –Addiction treatment –Advertising Applications of classical conditioning –Overcoming fear – Exposure therapy –Addiction treatment –Advertising –Development of prejudice – Latent inhibition  üWhat is learning? üNonassociative learning üHabituation/Sensitization Agenda –Associative Learning üClassical conditioning –Operant conditioning –Observational learning Thorndike’s Law of Effect – Behaviors that are followed – Behaviors that are followed by something pleasant are by something unpleasant more likely to be repeated are less likely to be repeated Operant Conditioning – Associations are formed between behaviors and their consequences – Organisms operate in their environments Classical conditioning Operant conditioning An association between 2 A behavior is associated stimuli with its consequences Behaviors that are often Behaviors that are active, subconscious and not intentional, and voluntary voluntary B.F. Skinner and the “Skinner Box” Types of Consequences – Positive = ADDING a stimulus – Doesn’t mean “good” – Negative = SUBTRACTING a stimulus – Doesn’t mean “bad” Types of Consequences Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior – Positive Reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior – Negative Reinforcement: Taking away something unpleasant to increase the frequency of a behavior Types of Consequences Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior – Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease the frequency of a behavior – Negative Punishment: Taking away something pleasant to decrease the frequency of a behavior Types of Consequences Reinforcement Punishment Increases the likelihood decreases the likelihood of a behavior of a behavior Positive (+) Add a pleasant Add an unpleasant Something is outcome outcome offered Negative (-) Remove an Remove a pleasant Something is unpleasant outcome outcome taken away More on Punishment – Effective punishments are… – Significant – Consistent – Immediate Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforce behaviors every time they occur Partial Reinforcement: Reinforce behavior on some occasions, but not all – Ratio Schedule: Depends on the number of times a behavior occurs – Interval Schedule: Depends on the passage of a certain amount of time Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed ratio: Reinforcement follows a set number of behaviors Variable ratio: Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors Interval Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed interval: The first response following a specified interval is reinforced (e.g. every 5 mins) Variable interval: The first response following a varying period is reinforced (e.g. every 3-7 mins) Choosing a Reinforcement Schedule What is the basis of reinforcement? Is the schedule set/regular Behavior Time or changing? Fixed Fixed Set Ratio Interval Variable Variable Changing Ratio Interval Effectiveness of Reinforcement Schedules Shaping – The method of successive approximations – Used to increase the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur Applications of Operant Conditioning – Parenting! – Training your pets! – Token economies – Tokens that you earn can be exchanged for other reinforcers – Used to increase the frequency of desired behaviors – Commonly used in schools and institutional settings (mental health facilities)  üWhat is learning? üNonassociative learning üHabituation/Sensitization Agenda üAssociative Learning üClassical conditioning üOperant conditioning –Observational learning Observational Learning – Learning that occurs when one organism watches the actions of another organism – Social learning/modeling – Similar to imitation – Many behaviors are influenced by observation: – Aggression – Language development – Moral judgement Processes of Observational Learning 1. Attention: More likely to imitate attention-grabbing things 2. Retention: Maintain a memory 3. Reproduction: Be able to imitate model 4. Motivation: Must be motivated to imitate a behavior  üWhat is learning? üNonassociative learning üHabituation/Sensitization Agenda üAssociative Learning üClassical conditioning üOperant conditioning üObservational learning Development Chapter 3 and 11   Great Debates  Newborn Development Agenda  Infancy & Childhood Development  Adolescent Development  Adult Development  Nature vs. Nurture? Nature & Nurture! NATURE NURTURE Heredity, Life experiences, Innate predispositions The environment Behavioral Genetics  Scientific field that attempts to identify and understand links between genetics and behavior Heritability The likelihood that variations observed in a population are due to genetics  Refers to POPULATIONS, not individuals  Ranges from 0 to 1  Is influenced by the environment Heritability  Is influenced by the environment… Nature and Nurture  Twin studies: Used to evaluate relative contributions of genetics and the environment - Monozygotic (Identical) twins share 100% of their DNA - Dizygotic (Fraternal) twins share ~50% of their DNA Nature and Nurture  Adoption studies: Compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents  Problems with this approach? Behavioral Genetics  Concordance Rate: The probability that a trait in one person will be shared by another  Usually discussed in relation to identical and fraternal twins Nature and Nurture  Epigenetics: The study of gene-environment interactions in the production of phenotypes  Nature vs. Nurture? Nature & Nurture! NATURE NURTURE Heredity, Life experiences, Innate predispositions The environment Continuous or Discontinuous? Universal or Ecological?  ✓Great Debates  Newborn Development Agenda  Infancy & Childhood Development  Adolescent Development  Adult Development Newborn Life  16-18 hours of sleep per day  When awake, alternate between alert looking and moving arms and legs  2-3 hours of crying per day → early communication! Newborn Senses  Sensitive to taste and smells  Hearing is most sensitive for the range of frequencies found in human speech  Preference for face-like visual stimuli  ✓Great Debates ✓Newborn Development Agenda  Infancy & Childhood Development  Adolescent Development  Adult Development Nervous System Development  Rapid gray matter growth early on, followed by synaptic pruning  Cells and connections that aren’t useful are systematically deleted  “Use it or lose it” Nervous System Development  Myelination continues throughout childhood and adolescence  6-13 years old: Myelination spurt in language areas of the brains  ✓Great Debates ✓Newborn Development  Infancy & Childhood Development  Physical Development Agenda  Cognitive Development  Socio-emotional Development  Adolescent Development  Adult Development Motor Development  Progresses in 2 ways simultaneously: 1. Head → toe 2. Midline → outward  ✓Great Debates ✓Newborn Development  Infancy & Childhood Development ✓Physical Development Agenda  Cognitive Development  Socio-emotional Development  Adolescent Development  Adult Development Piaget’s Theory  Children are scientists  Experiment on the world to construct their own knowledge  Learn many things on their own  Intrinsically motivated to learn Piaget’s Theory Schema: A set of expectations about objects and situations  Assimilation: Incorporating new learning into an existing schema without needing to revise it  Accommodation: Incorporating new learning into an existing schema that requires revising it Piaget’s Theory  Cognitive abilities develop through stages (Table 11.3!) Sensorimotor Stage (birth → 2 years)  Active exploration of the environment  Sensations → Motor responses  Language development  18 months: vocab of 10-50 words  2 years: short, but meaningful sentences Sensorimotor Stage (birth → 2 years)  Object permanence: Ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present (~8 months) Preoperational Stage (2 → 6 years)  Characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and illogical reasoning  Language acquisition  Don’t grasp concept of conservation Preoperational Stage (2 → 6 years)  Characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and illogical reasoning  Language acquisition  Don’t grasp concept of conservation  Egocentrism: Limited ability to understand other points of view Theory of Mind  The understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one’s own  Emerges around age 3-4  Critical to further social development Theory of Mind  False Belief Task Theory of Mind Theory of Mind Theory of Mind Theory of Mind Concrete Operational Stage (6 → 12 years)  Characterized by logical reasoning  No abstract reasoning yet  Can solve conservation problems  Hands-on learning Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)  Characterized by mature reasoning capabilities  Abstract reasoning  Improved problem solving  Idealism Remembering Piaget’s Stages S ensorimotor S ometimes P reoperational P igs C oncrete Operational C an F ormal Operational F ly Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory  Failure to consider individual differences  Underestimated abilities of young children  Overestimated abilities of adolescents  Doesn’t consider influence of family, community, or culture on development Lev Vygotsky  Emphasis on culture in cognitive development  Learning through social and collaborative interactions with parents, teachers, and community members  Language is KEY for cognitive development Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development  ✓Great Debates ✓Newborn Development  Infancy & Childhood Development ✓Physical Development Agenda ✓Cognitive Development  Socio-emotional Development  Adolescent Development  Adult Development Temperament  Prevailing patterns of mood, activity, and emotional responsiveness Temperament  How would you respond to each of these babies?  Temperament influences how caregivers respond to a child Temperament Attachment  Emotional bond connecting an infant to a parent or caregiver  Mobility helps determine timing of attachment Wire Mother Cloth Mother  Attachment Styles  Secure attachment: Children explore confidently when caregivers are present and return to caregivers for reassurance  Insecure attachment: Avoidant Anxious-Ambivalent Disorganized Indifferent Anxious even when Inconsistent No distress when mom is present Seem dazed and mom is gone, do not Great distress when confused approach when she mom leaves, clingy returns and/or ambivalent when she returns  Parenting Styles Parental Support: Empathy and recognition of child’s perspective Behavioral Regulation: Supervising behavior, consistent discipline, clear expectations Parenting Styles  Authoritative parent: High parental support, high behavioral regulation  Best outcomes for children  Appropriate limits  Consequences are educational  Consistent & firm  Warm & reasonable Parenting Styles  Authoritarian parent: Low parental support, high behavioral regulation  Prepares children for the limits they will meet in society  Lower levels of warmth and support  More likely to use harsher punishments  Child may be more rebellious Parenting Styles  Indulgent parent: High parental support, low behavioral regulation  Warm and loving  Don’t tell their children “no”  Children are monitored less  Children have higher levels of antisocial behavior Parenting Styles  Uninvolved parent: Low parental support, low behavioral regulation  Children are basically ignored  Children have highest rates of smoking, drinking, and antisocial behavior  ✓Great Debates ✓Newborn Development Agenda ✓Infancy & Childhood Development  Adolescent Development  Adult Development Adolescence  Adolescence: Period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood  Puberty: Period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity Brain Development  Second critical period for brain growth  Gray matter growth peaks ~11-12 years old  Cortex thinning throughout teen years  Abnormal gray matter thinning → schizophrenia  Myelination continues into young adulthood Brain Development  Less accurate interpretation of others’ emotions  Emotional parts of the brain (amygdala) mature before the rational parts of the brain (frontal lobes)  Risky behavior in teens Cognitive Development  Adult levels of working memory and reaction time  Improved problem solving  Rely less on heuristics and personal experiences  Rely more on logical reasoning  Moral Development In Europe, a woman was near death from a very bad disease, a special kind of cancer.There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered.The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging 10 times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could get together only about $1,000, which was half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Moral Development  Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 1. Preconventional morality: Moral choices are made according to expectation of reward or punishment 2. Conventional morality: Moral choices are made according to law or public opinion 3. Postconventional morality: Moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason Social & Emotional Development  Identity: A constant, unified sense of self  Who am I?  What kind of person do I want to be?  Affiliating with a club, clique, or ethnic group can help establish an identity  Adoption of a ready-made identity provided by parents or other mentors  ✓Great Debates ✓Newborn Development Agenda ✓Infancy & Childhood Development ✓Adolescent Development  Adult Development Young Adulthood  Physical status: As good as it’s ever going to be!  Cognition: Move into “postformal thought”  Learn to be OK with “it depends” or “there isn’t a right answer”  Relationships: Solid identity is key Midlife  Physical status:  Graying hair  Menopause for women  Cognition: Tends to remain relatively stable  Relationships: Big changes in social and work roles  Kids move out ‘Empty Nest’ – Cultural differences  Begin caring for aging parents  Transition out of the workforce  Midlife crisis = Myth! Late Adulthood  Physical status: Gradual declines in sensory abilities  Cognition: Tends to remain relatively stable  Only a minority of the population experiences dementia  Relationships: Increase in emotional well-being  Fewer, close friendships  Marriages buffer against stress  ✓Great Debates ✓Newborn Development Agenda ✓Infancy & Childhood Development ✓Adolescent Development ✓Adult Development The Healthy Mind: Stress & Health Chapter 16: Pages 639-674  What is Stress? Agenda Effects of Stress on Health Stress Management What is Stress?  Stress: An unpleasant emotional state resulting from the perception of danger  Stressor: Stimulus that causes stress Benefits of Stress  Stress can be good in moderation:  Increase chances of survival  Motivates performance  Can increase long-term health  Too much stress can be harmful:  Interferes with performance  Development of psychological disorders Acute Stressors  Specific events that produce stress  Have a defined beginning, middle, and end  Can be positive or negative Chronic Stressors  Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly  Related to greater psychological and physical symptoms than acute stressors Other Stressors  Hassles: Relatively insignificant sources of stress that contribute to a person’s overall level of stress The Stress Response  Stressful experiences can initiate a fight or flight response  Increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiration  Stop nonessential bodily functions (digestion, etc.) The Stress Response  Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):  Three-stage model describing an organism’s physiological response to stressors  Consistent across many stressors ALARM EXHAUSTION RESISTANCE GAS Stage 1: Alarm  Initiates when a stressor is perceived  Characterized by sympathetic arousal and mental clarity  Similar to fight-or-flight response GAS Stage 2: Resistance  Characterized by coping with ongoing stress  Occurs when stressors are prolonged GAS Stage 3: Exhaustion  Characterized by depletion of physical and psychological resources  Strength and energy drop to very low levels  Occurs when stressors are severe and long-lasting  ✓What is Stress? Agenda Effects of Stress on Health Stress Management Duration of Stress Stress and the Immune System  Immune system: Defends against infection and illness  Lymphocytes: White blood cells of the immune system that protect us from invading organisms (bacteria, viruses, etc.) Stress and the Immune System  Chronic stress harms the immune system:  Suppressed lymphocyte activity  Increased risk of infection and herpes flare-ups  Faster progression from HIV to AIDS  Stress from social relationships have the greatest influence on immune functioning  Low perceived control → Most damaging Stress and Heart Disease Chronic stress →Reduced ability of blood vessels to expand when necessary → Increased vulnerability to heart disease and heart attacks Other Effects of Stress  Can disrupt sleeping and waking cycles (cortisol)  Sleep deprivation  Can trigger depressed mood  Sleep and mood changes can contribute to obesity  ✓What is Stress? Agenda ✓Effects of Stress on Health Stress Management Dealing with Stress  Sense of control  Aerobic exercise  Sleep and healthy diet  Mindfulness  Social connectedness and support  Religious beliefs Coping Strategy  What would happen if the drop went in the glass? Stressors  What should we do? Coping Ability Problem-Focused Coping  Is designed to address specific problems by finding solutions  Positive:  Making a plan  Exploring your options  Negative:  Escape  Avoidance Problem-Focused Coping  Designed to address specific problems by finding solutions Emotion-Focused Coping  Targets the negative emotions arising from the situation  Positive:  Talking out problem  Meeting with counselor/therapist  Taking a break  Negative:  Alcohol  Emotional eating Emotion-Focused Coping  Targets the negative emotions arising from the situation Relationship-Focused Coping  Is designed to maintain and protect social relationships  Positive:  Empathy  Support  Compromise  Negative:  Confronting  Ignoring  Withdrawal Relationship-Focused Coping  Designed to maintain and protect social relationships  ✓What is Stress? Agenda ✓Effects of Stress on Health ✓Stress Management Social Psychology Chapter 13 The connected mind Page 499-530   Introduction to Social Psychology  First Impressions and Attributions  Attitudes and Persuasion Agenda  Prejudice and Stereotypes  Groups Why are humans so social? Humans need other humans  Earliest human ancestors lived in small social groups  Social interaction is a basic human need (e.g., attachment) Social isolation is detrimental  Poor sleep  Negative mood  Earlier mortality Social Psychology The scientific study of how people influence other people’s:  Behavior  Thoughts  Feelings  ✓Introduction to Social Psychology  First Impressions and Attributions Agenda  Attitudes and Persuasion  Prejudice and Stereotypes  Groups First impression  Formed rapidly (sometimes within seconds)  Long-lasting  …even in the face of contradictory information  A judgement about the cause of a person’s behavior Attribution  Why did that just happen? Attribution: Why did that just happen? Attribution  Dispositional (Internal) attribution: Personal qualities → Behavior  Situational (External) attribution: Environment → Behavior Correspondence Bias Correspondence bias Disposition → Behavior > Situational factors → Behavior Correspondence Bias Correspondence bias Disposition → Behavior > Situational factors → Behavior Defensive Attributions  Actor-observer bias: Tendency to make…  Situational attributions about our own behavior  Dispositional attributions about the behavior of others Defensive Attributions  Self-serving bias: Viewing our successes differently than our failures  Success = Dispositional attribution  Failure = Situational attribution Defensive Attributions  Just-world belief: Good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people.  Highly correlated with negative attitudes about:  Poor people  People with HIV/AIDS  The elderly  The unemployed  Cultural Influences on Attribution COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES More emphasis on situational More emphasis on dispositional factors factors More likely to show group- More likely to use self-serving serving bias bias and the just-world belief Cultural influence on attribution  ✓Introduction to Social Psychology ✓First Impressions and Attributions Agenda  Attitudes and Persuasion  Prejudice and Stereotypes  Groups Attitude Attitudes: Favorable or unfavorable evaluations that predispose behavior Positivity Positive Ambivalent Indifferent Negative Negativity Attitude Attitudes: Favorable or unfavorable evaluations that predispose behavior  Affect (i.e., emotion)  Behavior  Cognition How are attitudes formed? Personal experience Other people Observation Genetics Twin studies Attitude Cognitive Dissonance  The uncomfortable state when your behaviors don’t match your attitudes  Powerful tool for changing attitudes Cognitive Dissonance  Reducing Dissonance 1. Change one of the two cognitions/behaviors 2. Introduce a new cognition 3. Reduce importance domain Cognitive dissonance Get paid for $1 or $20 to tell another person that the task was fun Persuasion Persuasion: A change in attitude in response to information provided by another person The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM):  A model predicting response to persuasion through two routes:  Central route  Peripheral route Richard Petty The ELM and Persuasion  Central route: When a person considers persuasive arguments carefully and thoughtfully  Peripheral route: When a person responds to peripheral cues without considering the quality of the argument What Influences Persuasion?  ↑ Motivation → central  ↑ Education → central  ↑ Time → central  Emotions → peripheral  Characteristics of the person  How the message is communicated  Age of audience Persuasion and Social Media  How do people of different generations view the credibility of persuasive messages from professional vs. user-generated sources? Persuasion and Social Media  ✓Introduction to Social Psychology ✓First Impressions and Attributions Agenda ✓Attitudes and Persuasion  Prejudice and Stereotypes  Groups Key Terminology  Stereotype: Simplified sets of traits associated with group membership (cognition)  Prejudice: A pre-judgment or attitude (usually negative) towards a person based on group membership.  Discrimination: Unfair behavior based on stereotyping and prejudice Prejudice and stereotypes  Stereotype: “All blondes are dumb.”  Prejudice: “I don’t like this person because she is blonde.”  Discrimination: “I would never accept a blonde into my law school.” Sources of Prejudice and Stereotyping  Humans categorize information  Humans misjudge correlations between groups and their stereotypical behaviors  Direct experience  Learned from others  Emotional responses (amygdala) Outcomes of Prejudice Stereotype threat: Fear of confirming a negative group stereotype  Anxiety of confirming stereotype prevents you from doing your best work Stereotype Threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) Measuring Prejudice  Implicit Association Test (IAT): uses reaction time to assess people’s unconscious attitudes  https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/  Bias does not necessarily mean Prejudice Reducing Prejudice  Increased contact  Increased cooperation  Expand definition of in-group  ✓Introduction to Social Psychology ✓First Impressions and Attributions Agenda ✓Attitudes and Persuasion ✓Prejudice and Stereotypes  Groups and Social Influence Why Do We Go Along With the Group? Social norms: rules for behavior in social settings  Example: stand at the back of the Starbucks line  Example: stand forwards facing in an elevator door Conformity: matching your behavior and appearance to the perceived social norms of a group Asch’s conformity study The Stanford Prison Study Why Do We Conform?  Useful in ambiguous situations  Reduce risk of rejection Compliance  Compliance: agreement with a request from a person with no perceived authority  Reciprocation: we feel obligated to give something back to people who have given something to us.  A POWERFUL tool for social influence How can we get people to comply?  Door-in-the-face:  A large, unreasonable demand is followed by a smaller one  Effective in gaining compliance through reciprocation How can we get people to comply?  Foot-in-the-door:  A small request is followed up by a larger request  Effective in gaining compliance through consistency How can we get people to comply?  Low balling: Making further requests of a person who has already committed to a course of action 78 79 80 Obedience  Compliance with the request of an authority figure.  Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study  Would people administer near-lethal shocks to an innocent person? Milgram’s Obedience Study  Participant: “teacher”  Confederate: “learner”  Experimenter: “authority figure,” gives instructions  “Shocks” for wrong answers ▪ Effect of proximity (teacher-learner and teacher-experimenter) “Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with their fundamental standards of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority.” Social Facilitation Social facilitation: The presence of other people changes individual performance Yerkes-Dodson law: The effect of arousal on performance depends on the complexity of the task  Simple tasks: Performance improves with arousal  Complex tasks: Performance improves at first, then becomes impaired as arousal continues to grow Social Loafing  The reduced motivation and effort shown by individuals working in a group as opposed to working alone Deindividuation  Immersion of the individual within a group, which makes the individual relatively anonymous. Group Polarization  The intensifying of an original attitude following discussion Why does this happen?  Conformity  Tendency to associate with similar people  New reasons for holding attitude Groupthink Group members suppress dissenting opinions in the interests of group cohesion.  ✓Introduction to Social Psychology ✓First Impressions and Attributions Agenda ✓Attitudes and Persuasion ✓Prejudice and Stereotypes ✓Groups Individual difference - Intelligence Chapter 10: Pages 392-395, 399 - 403  What is Intelligence? Types of Intelligence Agenda Measuring Intelligence Extremes of Intelligence  Who are some of the smartest people you know? What makes them smart? What is Intelligence? Intelligence is the ability to…  Understand complex ideas  Adapt effectively to the environment  Learn from experience  Engage in reasoning  Overcome obstacles The real answer? We don’t really know… ▪Differing opinions across the field ▪Overall, theories focus on either – ▪ Overall abilities ▪ Specific types of abilities ▪No one agrees upon a universal definition  ✓What is Intelligence? ✓Types of Intelligence Agenda Measuring Intelligence Extremes of Intelligence Spearman’s ‘g’ General intelligence (g): A measure of an individual’s overall intelligence  Positive correlations between different intellectual abilities ‘g’: Raymond B. Cattell  Fluid intelligence: Ability to think logically without using learned knowledge  Peaks in young adulthood  Crystallized intelligence: Ability to think logically using specific learned knowledge  Stable through adulthood General Intelligence Fluid Crystallized Intelligence Intelligence Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory  Every task requires a combination of ‘g’ and ‘s’  ‘g’ = general intelligence  ‘s’ = task-related skills ‘s’ ‘s’ ‘g’ ‘s’ ‘s’ Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory  Analytical Intelligence: Identify, define, and solve problems  Creative Intelligence: Generate novel solutions  Practical Intelligence: Apply and use solutions in everyday life Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences  People vary in their ability levels across different domains of intelligence Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence: Ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning  Higher emotional intelligence → More friends, better romantic relationships, happier Social Intelligence Social intelligence: Ability to interpret and navigate complicated social environments and relationships  Often hand-in-hand with emotional intelligence  Neither are typically included on standard IQ tests  Both can be trained! Beliefs Influence Intelligence  Growth mindset: Belief that you are capable of improving an ability  ✓What is Intelligence? ✓Types of Intelligence Agenda Measuring Intelligence Extremes of Intelligence Intelligence Test Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, 1904 Academic performance Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (Terman, 1916)  BUT mental ages peaks at 16 on these tests… Intelligence Quotient (IQ)  Modern IQ scores are relative: 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 ′ 𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑄 = × 100 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑠 IQ Across the Lifespan  Relative IQ stays the same, absolute IQ changes  Modern IQ Tests  Stanford-Binet  Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)  Wechsler was described as “feebleminded” by early IQ tests  Tests various mental abilities Pros and Cons of IQ Tests Advantages Disadvantages  Strong correlations with  Low correlations with art and math and verbal skills design skills  Culture-free(?) tests available  Susceptible to bias from  Great predictor of success in culture, SES, etc. school  Doesn’t necessarily predict success in life  ✓What is Intelligence? ✓Types of Intelligence Agenda ✓Measuring Intelligence Extremes of Intelligence Where does intelligence come from?  Nature and Nurture!  Biological & genetic influences  Environmental influences Where does intelligence come from?  Genes might establish a certain range that our IQ is likely to be in  Environment may help determine the specific score that results Environmental Influences  Socioeconomic status (SES)  Poverty correlated with low IQ scores  Possible third variables:  Nutrition  Quantity/quality of education  Medical care  Breastfeeding  Stress Distribution of Intelligence  95% of population falls between 70 and 130  Remaining 5% has IQ 130 (gifted) Intellectual Disability (ID) Intellectual disability: Diagnosed in individuals with IQ scores < 70 and poor adaptive behaviors/life skills  *Formerly known as mental retardation  Affects 1-3% of the population Types of ID  Mild  IQ: 55-70  Usually results from environmental causes (e.g. poverty)  Can learn to live independently with proper intervention  Moderate  IQ: 40-55  Usually due to genetic or medical conditions (e.g. Down syndrome)  Usually require some assisted living Types of ID  Severe  IQ: 25-40  May learn a few words and adaptive behaviors  Require significant assistance  Profound  IQ: below 25  Will likely never function independently Giftedness Giftedness: Having an IQ score of 130 or above  Genius: giftedness + creativity and achievement  Challenges in traditional school system:  Need programs tailored to their abilities  ✓What is Intelligence? ✓Measuring Intelligence ✓Types of Intelligence Agenda ✓Sources of Intelligence ✓Extremes of Intelligence Individual difference - Personality Chapter 12: Pages 457-459; 465-476  What is Personality? Historical approaches to Personality Agenda Trait Theories Social-Cognitive Theories What is Personality? Personality: An individual’s characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling How do we assess personality?  Two broad types of measures: 1. Personality inventories 2. Projective techniques  ✓What is Personality? Historical approaches to Personality Agenda Trait Theories Social-Cognitive Theories Historical Approaches Psychodynamic Behaviorist Humanistic Sigmund Freud  Famous for treating patients with hysteria (now known as somatic symptom disorder)  Created the “Psychodynamic” approach to psychology  Psychoanalysis – A treatment approach based on his psychodynamic theory. Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Sigmund Freud Psychodynamic – A word describing how “psychic” energy moves among the compartments of the personality: Id, ego, and superego. Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Parts of the Psyche Id – primitive pleasure-seeking drives Superego – the conscience; morality imposed by society Ego – the decider (the “self”); coordinates our desires with reality The Unconscious Mind  The part of mental activity that cannot be voluntarily retrieved Defense Mechanisms According to Freud – protective behaviors that reduce anxiety  E.g., Sublimation – channeling unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors Behaviorist Approach  Emphasize learning  Personalities change over time  Response tendencies  Operant conditioning → Development of flexible responses to the environment that can appear trait-like BF Skinner (1904 – 1990) (operant conditioning guy) Humanistic Approach  Humans are unique  Psychology should focus on the study Abraham Maslow of exceptional people & why they succeed  Humans strive towards self- actualization (achieving one’s full potential) Carl Rogers  ✓What is Personality? ✓Historical approaches to Personality Agenda Trait Theories Social-Cognitive Theories What are some personality traits? Trait Theories  Trait: stable personality characteristic  E.g. honesty, pride, kindness, vanity, etc. Trait Theories of Personality  Trait theory started as a list of 4,500 words!!  Narrowed down to 16  Now, we have the Big 5 Theory The Big Five Theory  Openness  Conscientiousness  Extroversion  Agreeableness  Neuroticism  Relatively stable across lifetime  Accounts for most individual differences in personality Traits fall on a continuum… Low High The Big Five: Openness  Openness: appreciation for fantasy, feelings, actions, ideas, values, and aesthetics Low: High: Practical Curious Traditional Unconventional Conforming Imaginative The Big Five: Conscientiousness  Conscientiousness: competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation Low: High: Unreliable Reliable Lazy Work hard Undependable Complete tasks on time The Big Five: Extroversion  Extroversion: warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and positive emotion Low: High: Reserved Gregarious Passive Assertive Reflective Seek excitement The Big Five: Agreeableness  Agreeableness: trustworthiness, altruism, trust, compliance, modesty, and tender mindedness Low: High: Cynical Trusting Uncooperative Altruistic Rude Compliant The Big Five: Neuroticism  Neuroticism: anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self- consciousness, impulsivity, and vulnerability Low: High: Calm Worried Secure Angry Emotionally-stable Self-conscious The Big Five: Do they work?  Highly reliable across cultures  Strong external validity with observed behavior  Criticisms:  5 traits are not enough to explain ALL of personality  Based on data, not theory  Usually relies on self-report (prosocial bias)  ✓What is Personality? ✓Historical approaches to Personality Agenda ✓Trait Theories Social-Cognitive Theories What would you do?  Situation Matters! Low Extroversion Low Conscientiousness High Extroversion Social-Cognitive Learning Theories  Emphasize the roles of the social environment Social-Cognitive Learning Theories  Personality is influenced by motivations, emotions, and cognitions  Influential social-cognitive learning theories:  Locus of control  Reciprocal determinism  If-then relationships Locus of Control  A person’s tendency to perceive the source of individual outcomes as either internal or external  Internal: In control of our own destiny (individual effort)  External: World will decide fate (chance, luck) Locus of Control - Behaviors  Internal locus of control:  More efficient stress management  Use seat belts more consistently  More likely to practice effective birth control Reciprocal Determinism  The person and the situation mutually influence each other  Observing behavior of others plays an important role in the development of personality Reciprocal Determinism  Self-efficacy: level of confidence you have in your abilities to gain reinforcement  High: leads to feeling like you will succeed  Low: leads to giving up or putting in less effort  Can be situation-specific If-Then Relationships  Behavior arises from how an individual interprets situations, not from traits  IF a certain situation is experienced, THEN a particular stable behavior emerges  ✓What is Personality? ✓Historical approaches to Personality Agenda ✓Trait Theories ✓Social-Cognitive Theories Psychological Disorders Page 547-581, 260-262  How Prevalent are Psychological Disorders?  An estimated 1 in 7 people in Hong Kong will experience a common mental disorder at any given time  Higher prevalence in young adults!  Lifetime prevalence: more than 70 % Comorbidity: Co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual Have You Ever…  Felt depressed or down?  Been anxious about giving a presentation?  Been dissatisfied with your appearance?  Had trouble concentrating? Did you answer yes?  Congrats! You’re a human!  Medical Students’ Syndrome: Tendency for students to perceive themselves as having the symptoms of an illness they’re studying  Ask yourself:  Are my symptoms occasional or chronic?  Are my symptoms interfering with my life? Resources  Counseling and Wellness Center (https://counsel.hkust.edu.hk/page.php?section=Personal+Cou nseling&anchor=makeanappointment)  School Wellness Manager Vanessa at [email protected] or 2358-6955. Respect Person First Language How we refer to people with psychological disorders  A person with schizophrenia (not a schizophrenic person)  A child who has autism (not an autistic child)   “Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis  Neurodevelopmental Disorders  Schizophrenia  Major Depressive Disorder  Bipolar Disorder Agenda  Anxiety Disorders  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders “Abnormal” Psychology  The study of psychological disorders What is normality? Normal or Abnormal? Statistical Normal  Abnormal  ab = “away from”  norma = “the rule” Cultural Normal  Normality is culture dependent. What is Abnormal Behavior?  Abnormal behavior is…  Unusual  Distressing  Harmful to self or others What are psychological disorders? All psychological disorders are associated with a cluster of symptoms and these key elements:  Disturbances in behavior, thoughts, or emotions  Significant personal distress or impairment  Internal dysfunction (biological, psychological, or both) Diagnosing psychological disorders  Based on observable behavior and self- reported experience  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)  International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) Diagnosing Psychological Disorders  Promotes consistency in the diagnosis of psychological disorders  Why is it so important to have consistency? Problems with the DSM Differentiating normal from abnormal  “We’re all a little ‘crazy’” The manifestation of disorders often vary across individual; the DSM doesn’t take this into account  A set number of symptoms X, Y, Z, etc. are required  Your level of symptom X must meet threshold Y  Symptoms must last X number of months It’s not perfect, but it’s still useful! Why do psychological disorders develop? Biological Factors Environmental Factors  Genetics Poor socialization  Biochemical imbalances Stressful life circumstances  Structural brain abnormalities Cultural and social inequalities Psychological Factors  Maladaptive learning and coping Gene x Environment!  Cognitive biases  Dysfunctional attitudes  Interpersonal problems Why do psychological disorders develop?  The Diathesis-Stress Model Environmental Stress Environmental Stress Genetic Predisposition Genetic Predisposition  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis  Neurodevelopmental Disorders  Schizophrenia  Major Depressive Disorder  Bipolar Disorder Agenda  Anxiety Disorders  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)  Characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills  Often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behavior  Key Symptoms:  Lack of social-emotional reciprocity  Unawareness of others’ perspectives  Trouble developing and maintaining relationships  Insistence on routine  Repetitive behaviors/rituals  Unusually increased/decreased sensitivity to stimuli  Restricted interests Prevalence of ASD  1 out of every 68 children  Boys: 1/42  Girls: 1/189 Causes of ASD  Biological  Genetics: 76-88% concordance rate in identical twins  Brain structure/connective abnormalities  Environmental  Parental age  Prenatal exposure to infection  Prenatal exposure to certain medications  Nutrition Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Characterized by either unusual inattentiveness, hyperactivity with impulsivity, or both Key Symptoms:  Inattention: Inability to focus on a task for an age- appropriate length of time  Hyperactivity: High level of motor activity  Impulsivity: Act without thinking  Prevalence of ADHD Global Prevalence Hong Kong Prevalence https://www.letstalkadhd.org.hk/adhd-statistic Causes of ADHD  Biological  Genetics: 70% concordance rate in twins  Structural/functional differences in the brain  Environmental  Lead contamination  Low birth weight  Prenatal exposure to tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders  Schizophrenia  Major Depressive Disorder  Bipolar Disorder Agenda  Anxiety Disorders  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders  Symptoms of Schizophrenia  Psychotic disorder characterized by positive and negative symptoms Key Positive Symptoms (+): Key Negative Symptoms (-): Delusions Emotional/Social Withdrawal Hallucinations Apathy Disorganized speech/behavior Avolition Delusions  Delusions: Unrealistic beliefs  Paranoia (persecution by others)  Grandiosity (feelings of power or importance)  Control (beliefs that others are directing one’s behavior)  Thought broadcasting  Thought insertion  Delusions of reference Hallucinations  Hallucinations: False perceptions  Auditory hallucinations are the most common Disorganized Speech Disorganized speech: Jump from topic to topic Disorganized motor Behavior Disorganized motor behavior  Ranges from unusually active to barely moving  Unusual grimaces and gestures  Catatonia – maintaining awkward or unusual body positions for hours at a time More Symptoms Emotional withdrawal: Failure to show typical outward signs of emotion (expressions, tone of voice) Causes of Schizophrenia  Biological  50% concordance rate in identical twins  Neural degeneration  Reduced frontal lobe activity  Dopamine hypothesis  Environmental  Extreme stress  Low SES  Prenatal exposure to viruses  Marijuana use Enlarged ventricles  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders ✓Schizophrenia  Major Depressive Disorder  Bipolar Disorder Agenda  Anxiety Disorders  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders Major Depressive Disorder  Characterized by  a severely depressed mood  loss of interest and pleasure most of the day, nearly every day, for a period of at least 2 weeks  Other symptoms:  Disturbance in appetite; Significant weight loss or weight gain  Disturbance in sleep (insomnia or hypersomnia)  A slowing down of thought and a reduction of physical movement  Fatigue or loss of energy  Feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness  Difficulty in concentrating  Thoughts of suicide or a suicide attempt Prevalence of MDD  5% of the adult population  Highest rates in 18–29-year-olds  1.5-3x more likely in females Predictors of Suicide  Previous suicide attempt(s) is the best predictor of future suicide attempts  Non-suicidal self-injury  Hopelessness, feeling like a burden to others, social isolation  Substance abuse  LGBTQ (most likely due to social stigma) Suicide Myths  Talking to a depressed person about suicide makes him/her more likely to do it  Most people who threaten suicide are seeking attention  People who talk a lot about suicide almost never attempt  As severe depression lifts, risk of suicide decreases  Suicide is almost always completed with no warning Ways to Seek Help Ways to Seek Help Ways to Seek Help Causes of MDD: Learning  Reduction in positive reinforcement  Increase in negative outcomes  Learned helplessness: feelings of helplessness when behaviors are no longer clearly linked to consequences Causes of MDD: Cognitive  Negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future  Rumination: focusing on the depression, its causes, and its consequences  Attributions:  Internal – External  Stable – Unstable  Global – Specific Causes of MDD: Biological and Environmental  Biological  Heritability  Low serotonin levels  Overactive cingulate cortex  Disturbance of circadian rhythms  Social  Loneliness  Environmental  Extreme stress  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders ✓Schizophrenia ✓Major Depressive Disorder  Bipolar Disorder Agenda  Anxiety Disorders  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder  Bipolar disorder: Characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression  Mania:  Impulsivity  Increased energy  Dramatically elevated mood  Decreased need for sleep  Grandiose delusions  Flight of ideas  Talkativeness Bipolar Disorder: Prevalence Prevalence:  About 1 in 150 adults (each year)  About 1 in 100 adults (lifetime) Early onset: Adolescence or early adulthood Causes of Bipolar Disorder  Biological  70% concordance rates in identical twins  Similar brain abnormalities as schizophrenia  Environmental  Diet (Omega-3 fatty acids can possibly provide protection)  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders ✓Schizophrenia ✓Major Depressive Disorder ✓Bipolar Disorder Agenda  Anxiety Disorders  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders Anxiety Disorders  Unrealistic and counterproductive anxiety levels  Exaggeration of a normally useful response  Two major components of anxiety:  Strong negative emotions  Physical tension (because of anticipation of danger)  Don’t impair ability to think realistically Anxiety Disorders  Major categories of anxiety disorders:  Specific Phobias  Social Anxiety Disorder  Panic Disorder  Agoraphobia  Generalized Anxiety Disorder Specific Phobias  Specific phobias: Fear of something specific  Animals  Natural phenomena (earthquakes, tornadoes)  Blood, injury  Situations (flying, heights, etc.)  Evolutionary perspective: phobias exaggerate a useful sense of caution Social Anxiety Disorder  Unrealistic fear of being scrutinized and criticized by others  Significant avoidance  Impairs occupational/school/social functioning  Cultural differences Panic Disorder Panic attack: intense fear and autonomic arousal in the absence of a real threat  Peaks within 10 minutes  Pounding heart, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea, dizziness Panic disorder: characterized by repeated panic attacks and fear of future attacks  Avoiding things that trigger physical symptoms of panic Causes of Panic Disorder  Biological  Large quantities of orexins (vigilance)  Cognitive  Misinterpreting body’s signals  Social  Worry about seeming crazy to others  Environmental  Stressful life events Agoraphobia Unrealistic fear of open spaces, being outside the home alone, or being in a crowd  Can result from panic disorder Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)  Characterized by excessive anxiety and worry that is not correlated with particular objects or situations  Symptoms have to last more than 6 months  Worry about life in general  Key Symptoms:  Trouble sleeping  Difficulty concentrating  Irritability  Restlessness  Muscle tension  Being easily fatigued Causes of GAD  Biological  Genetic predisposition  Amygdala  Cognitive  Schemas  Worry as a coping strategy  Environmental/Social  Lower SES  Disruptions in social connectivity  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders ✓Schizophrenia ✓Major Depressive Disorder ✓Bipolar Disorder Agenda ✓Anxiety Disorders  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder  OCD: associated with intrusive obsessions and compulsions  Obsessions: intrusive, distressing thoughts, high anxiety  Fear of contamination  Repeated doubts  Symmetry  Sexual imagery  Compulsions: repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to reduce the high anxiety  Ordering  Hand washing  Counting Causes of OCD  Biological  63-87% concordance rate in identical twins  Brain trauma, abnormalities  Learning: reinforcement  Social: cultural factors Body Dysmorphic Disorder BDD: unrealistic perception of physical flaws  Numerous cosmetic surgeries  Excessive bodybuilding  Attempts to “perfect” body  Repetitive behaviors  Checking or avoiding mirrors constantly  Excessive grooming  Comparing appearance to others  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders ✓Schizophrenia ✓Major Depressive Disorder ✓Bipolar Disorder Agenda ✓Anxiety Disorders ✓Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) PTSD: Caused by the experience of trauma (such as combat, accidents, assault, natural disasters, etc.)  Key Symptoms:  Hypervigilance  Avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma  Flashbacks  Dreams about the traumatic event Causes of PTSD  Biological  Smaller hippocampal volume  Lower benzodiazepine levels in the frontal cortex  Learning  Classical conditioning  Social/Cultural  Lack of social support  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders ✓Schizophrenia ✓Major Depressive Disorder ✓Bipolar Disorder Agenda ✓Anxiety Disorders ✓Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder ✓Posttraumatic Stress Disorder  Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa  Maintenance of unusually low body weight and a distorted body image  Intense fear of gaining weight  Physical Symptoms:  Interruption of menstruation cycles (females)  Dry and yellow skin  Fine hair on face and body  Cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems Bulimia Nervosa  Bulimia nervosa: Characterized by bingeing and purging  Key Symptoms:  Eating unusually large amounts of food  Purging through the use of vomiting or laxatives  Feelings of depression, disgust, and loss of control Binge-eating Disorder  Binge-eating disorder: Eating abnormally large amounts of food at one sitting  Feeling that eating is out of control  No purging Causes of Eating Disorders  Biological  48-88% concordance rates in twins (mixed results though)  Reward processes similar to addiction  Environmental  Cultural attitudes toward beauty  ✓“Abnormal” Psychology and Diagnosis ✓Neurodevelopmental Disorders ✓Schizophrenia ✓Major Depressive Disorder ✓Bipolar Disorder Agenda ✓Anxiety Disorders ✓Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder ✓Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ✓Eating Disorders Healing the troubled mind Chapter 15: pp. 595-606; 610-630 Seeking Treatment  Only 30% get appropriate treatment  Why is it that people can’t/don’t seek treatment? Why people don’t receive treatment 1. They don’t realize they need it 2. Barriers to treatment  Stigma  Financial problems  Cultural factors  Lack of insurance  Lack of treatment providers … 3. Don’t know where to look for treatment Who administers psychotherapy?  Psychotherapists = Licensed professionals Title Degree Specialties Treats disorders Psychiatrist MD Can prescribe medication Treats disorders and adjustment problems Clinical psychologist PhD or PsyD May prescribe medication PhD, PsyD, EdD, other Problems with Counselor master’s degrees adjustment   Psychotherapy Agenda  Biological Therapies  Treating Specific Disorders Psychological Therapies Psychotherapy: Interaction between a therapist and someone suffering from a psychological problem Goal: provide support or relief from problems Individual Therapy  Hour-long meetings with a therapist  Pros: lots of interaction with the therapist  Cons: VERY expensive  Brief therapy: Psychotherapy provided in 3-5 sessions  Focus on solution-building, not problem-solving Group Therapy  Meetings of multiple clients led by a licensed psychotherapist  Other self-help groups may not be supervised by a licensed psychotherapist, but leaders receive training  Alcoholics Anonymous  Weight Watchers Other Approaches to Therapy  Family therapy: Family members participate both individually and with other members  Couples therapy: Focuses on intimate relationships  Online therapy: Can be as beneficial as face-to-face psychotherapy Behavior Therapy Behavior therapy: Operates on assumption that disordered behavior is learned  Use of classical and operant conditioning  Eliminating unwanted behaviors  Promoting good behaviors Changing Behaviors Applied behavior analysis  Observe behaviors and change them without assuming much about the thoughts/emotions underlying them Promote Desired Behaviors  Token economy: Clients are given “tokens” for desired behaviors, which they can later trade for rewards  Problem: If reward is no longer available Eliminating unwanted behaviors  Consequences of behavior  Are they reinforcing behavior?  Are they punishing behavior?  Re-evaluate the consequences to change the behavior Stay in bed all day Bad grade on paper Edit paper Reduce Unwanted Emotional Responses  Reduce fear/anger through exposure  Exposure therapy: Confront an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly  Goal: decrease in emotional response Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Therapy: Help a client to identify and correct any distorted thinking about self, others, or the world Cognitive Therapy  Cognitive restructuring: Teach clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions  Replace negative thinking with realistic and positive beliefs Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CBT = Blend of cognitive and behavioral therapeutic strategies CBT is:  Problem-focused  Action-oriented  Transparent  Time-limited  ✓Psychotherapy Agenda  Biological Therapies  Treating Specific Disorders Types of Biological Therapy  Medication  Electroconvulsive therapy  Psychosurgery  Brain Stimulation  Neurofeedback Medication  The most common type of biological therapy  Specific drugs are used to treat specific disorders  More to come soon! Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Involves inducing a mild seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain for