Psychology Classical Conditioning Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which application of classical conditioning is primarily used to help individuals confront their phobias?

  • Exposure therapy (correct)
  • Latent inhibition
  • Advertising
  • Habituation

    • What does unpairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) in addiction treatment aim to achieve?

  • Create a negative association with the substance (correct)
  • Reinforce the addictive behavior
  • Suppress the withdrawal symptoms
  • Increase tolerance to the substance

    • What phenomenon in classical conditioning can contribute to the development of prejudice?

  • Latent inhibition (correct)
  • Operant conditioning
  • Reinforcement schedules
  • Habituation

    • According to Thorndike's Law of Effect, which statement is true regarding behavior repetition?

    <p>Pleasant consequences increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect differentiates operant conditioning from classical conditioning?

    <p>Operant conditioning is focused on the consequences of behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the psyche is responsible for primitive pleasure-seeking drives?

    <p>Id</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the superego in Freud's theory?

    <p>To impose morality and societal rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a defense mechanism according to Freud?

    <p>Sublimation into productive work</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the behaviorist approach, what is emphasized in understanding personality?

    <p>Learning and response tendencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the objective of Abraham Maslow's approach to personality?

    <p>To focus on studying exceptional individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of associative learning?

    <p>The formation of associations between stimuli and behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, what is necessary for the conditioned stimulus (CS) to effectively elicit a response?

    <p>It must occur before the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and close together in time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'acquisition' refer to in classical conditioning?

    <p>The development of a learned response to a conditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines learning in the context of behavior?

    <p>A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of classical conditioning, what does 'unconditioned' mean?

    <p>A stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does habituation differ from sensory adaptation?

    <p>Habituation is a form of learning that decreases reactions to repeated stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a conditioned response (CR)?

    <p>A learned behavior that occurs after experience with a conditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of sensitization?

    <p>An increased startle response after a loud explosion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes reflexes?

    <p>Involuntary responses that occur quickly and without thought.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning includes both classical and operant conditioning?

    <p>Associative learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of instincts?

    <p>They involve complex behaviors that occur until completed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of learning occurs through the observation of others?

    <p>Observational learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of nonassociative learning?

    <p>Adjusting responses based on repeated exposure to a single stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of positive reinforcement?

    <p>To increase the likelihood of a behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of consequence involves taking away something pleasant?

    <p>Negative Punishment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following schedules of reinforcement provides reinforcement after a set number of behaviors?

    <p>Fixed Ratio</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior?

    <p>Positive Punishment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a variable interval schedule of reinforcement, how is the reinforcement delivered?

    <p>After a variable period of time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior?

    <p>Reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is essential for punishment to be effective?

    <p>It should be significant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does continuous reinforcement entail?

    <p>Reinforcing behaviors every time they occur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait in the Big Five Theory is associated with being imaginative and unconventional?

    <p>Openness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is a sign of low conscientiousness?

    <p>Undependable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait in the Big Five Theory reflects anxiety and self-consciousness?

    <p>Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes high levels of extroversion in the Big Five Theory?

    <p>Gregariousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect does the Big Five Theory NOT account for in personality differences?

    <p>Variability of traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of high agreeableness?

    <p>Cooperative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the Big Five traits generally develop over an individual's lifetime?

    <p>They remain relatively stable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best reflects a criticism of the Big Five Theory?

    <p>Five traits do not explain all aspects of personality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does emotional intelligence primarily involve?

    <p>Ability to reason about emotions and enhance reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of intelligence involves generating novel solutions?

    <p>Creative intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Spearman's two-factor theory indicates tasks require the combination of which two components?

    <p>General intelligence and specific task-related skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best represents Gardner's theory?

    <p>People possess distinct intelligence types that vary individually.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of social intelligence?

    <p>Ability to interpret and navigate social environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does heritability refer to in behavioral genetics?

    <p>The likelihood that variations in a population are due to genetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes monozygotic twins?

    <p>Twins that share 100% of their DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In behavioral genetics, what is the concordance rate used to measure?

    <p>The likelihood of shared traits between two people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does epigenetics play in behavioral genetics?

    <p>It studies the interactions between genes and the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements regarding adoption studies is true?

    <p>They assess the influence of both biological and adoptive factors on adopted children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors affects heritability?

    <p>The environment in which a population exists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of behavioral genetics?

    <p>To identify links between genetics and behavioral outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of extinction in classical conditioning?

    <p>The conditioned response (CR) decreases over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During infancy, how many hours do newborns typically sleep each day?

    <p>16-18 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does spontaneous recovery refer to in classical conditioning?

    <p>The return of a conditioned response after a break</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of fraternal twins?

    <p>They share approximately 50% of their genetic material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of classical conditioning, what does the term latent inhibition indicate?

    <p>Familiar stimuli are learned faster than unfamiliar stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does generalization differ from discrimination in classical conditioning?

    <p>Generalization involves responding to similar stimuli, while discrimination involves distinguishing between them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes higher-order conditioning?

    <p>Pairing a conditioned stimulus with another neutral stimulus to elicit a conditioned response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does contiguity play in classical conditioning?

    <p>It involves both CS and UCS occurring close together in time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a secure attachment style in children?

    <p>Children explore confidently when caregivers are present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of parenting style is characterized by high parental support and low behavioral regulation?

    <p>Indulgent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the phenomenon of inhibition in classical conditioning?

    <p>A CS predicts that a UCS will not occur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely outcome for children raised by authoritarian parents?

    <p>They are often rebellious due to lack of warmth and support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During adolescence, which of the following reflects brain development patterns?

    <p>Myelination continues into young adulthood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavior is commonly seen in children raised by uninvolved parents?

    <p>High rates of smoking and antisocial behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which style of attachment involves children being anxious even when caregivers are present?

    <p>Anxious-Ambivalent attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining characteristic of authoritative parenting?

    <p>High parental support and high behavioral regulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive development change is observed in adolescents compared to children?

    <p>Improved ability to solve complex problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of attachment is indicated by a child displaying inconsistent behavior towards their caregiver?

    <p>Disorganized attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the emotional development of adolescents?

    <p>The amygdala matures before the frontal lobes leading to risky behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main technique used in the door-in-the-face method of gaining compliance?

    <p>Presenting a large, unreasonable request followed by a smaller one</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Stanley Milgram's Obedience Study, what role did the participant assume?

    <p>Teacher</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does social facilitation have on performance according to the Yerkes-Dodson law?

    <p>Arousal impacts simple tasks positively and complex tasks negatively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concept behind the foot-in-the-door technique?

    <p>Following a small request with a larger one to maintain consistency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes social loafing in group settings?

    <p>Reduced motivation and effort when working in a group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon describes the intensifying of an original attitude following a group discussion?

    <p>Group polarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does deindividuation lead to in group situations?

    <p>Reduced self-awareness and anonymity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of groupthink within a team?

    <p>Stifling of dissenting opinions for cohesion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does low balling influence compliance after an individual commits to a course of action?

    <p>By increasing requests after initial agreement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines obedience in a social context?

    <p>Compliance with requests from an authority figure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a growth mindset?

    <p>Belief that effort can lead to improvement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes modern IQ tests?

    <p>They assess various mental abilities and have normative comparisons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the calculation of IQ involve?

    <p>Determining the individual's score relative to their peers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one disadvantage of IQ tests mentioned?

    <p>They are influenced by cultural and socioeconomic biases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals diagnosed with intellectual disability typically have IQ scores below what threshold?

    <p>70</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is necessary for the acquisition of a conditioned response in classical conditioning?

    <p>The conditioned stimulus must occur before the unconditioned stimulus and closely together in time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon describes the reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of rest following extinction?

    <p>Spontaneous recovery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does latent inhibition refer to in classical conditioning?

    <p>A previously conditioned stimulus slows down the learning of a new stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of discrimination in classical conditioning?

    <p>The learned ability to distinguish between different stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, what does inhibition signify?

    <p>A conditioned stimulus predicts the absence of an unconditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor enhances the speed of learning in classical conditioning?

    <p>The association being unexpected and relatively surprising.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is higher-order conditioning?

    <p>The process where a new conditioned stimulus is paired with an established conditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is considered central to enhancing motivation in persuasive contexts?

    <p>Perceived relevance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term differentiates a negative attitude towards a person due to their group membership from outright discriminatory behavior?

    <p>Prejudice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following interventions is most effective for reducing prejudice?

    <p>Increased contact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of response is stereotype threat characterized by?

    <p>Fear of confirming negative stereotypes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method measures unconscious attitudes through reaction time?

    <p>Implicit Association Test (IAT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome of humans misjudging correlations between groups and their stereotypical behaviors?

    <p>Formation of stereotypes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept refers to conforming to perceived social norms in a group setting?

    <p>Conformity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scenarios exemplifies a social norm?

    <p>Talking quietly in a library</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of discrimination in the context of stereotypes and prejudice?

    <p>Unfair behavior towards certain groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach is likely to help expand the definition of in-group to reduce prejudice?

    <p>Shared community projects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does fluid intelligence primarily involve?

    <p>Thinking logically without relying on learned knowledge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is involved in Spearman's two-factor theory for every task?

    <p>General intelligence and task-related skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes emotional intelligence?

    <p>Reasoning about emotions and using them to enhance reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, how do individuals vary?

    <p>In their levels of intelligence across different domains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of intelligence is emphasized in practical intelligence according to Sternberg's Triarchic Theory?

    <p>Applying and utilizing solutions in everyday contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of social intelligence?

    <p>Ability to interpret and navigate social environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the peak time for fluid intelligence as identified in the content?

    <p>In early adulthood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes crystallized intelligence?

    <p>Is stable and relies on acquired knowledge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of intelligence described in the provided context?

    <p>Musical intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary aim of exposure therapy in classical conditioning?

    <p>To help individuals unlearn fear responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In addiction treatment, what does unpairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) aim to achieve?

    <p>Eliminate the conditioned response to drug-related cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which application of classical conditioning can lead to the development of prejudices?

    <p>Latent inhibition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Thorndike’s Law of Effect, which scenario is likely to result in behavior repetition?

    <p>A student earns praise for good grades</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes operant conditioning compared to classical conditioning?

    <p>It is based on consequences rather than associations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a key difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

    <p>Operant conditioning is based on voluntary actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does habituation refer to in the context of learning?

    <p>A decrease in response to repeated, non-threatening stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of latent inhibition in learning?

    <p>To prevent associations from forming in familiar contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the role of consequences in operant conditioning?

    <p>Consequences are essential for shaping behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait in the Big Five Theory is most closely associated with achievement striving and self-discipline?

    <p>Conscientiousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Big Five Theory, what characteristic is associated with high levels of neuroticism?

    <p>Self-consciousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the Big Five traits is true regarding their reliability across cultures?

    <p>They are highly reliable across cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following traits describes a tendency toward imagination and unconventional thinking?

    <p>Openness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common criticism of the Big Five Theory?

    <p>It is solely based on self-reporting evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in classical conditioning?

    <p>A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without prior learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is essential for the acquisition of a conditioned response (CR)?

    <p>The conditioned stimulus (CS) must occur before the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, what does the term 'contiguity' refer to?

    <p>The timing and order of stimuli presentation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the relationship between unconditioned responses (UCR) and conditioned responses (CR)?

    <p>UCR is reflexive, while CR is a learned behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of forming associations among stimuli and behaviors referred to as?

    <p>Associative learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects a characteristic of a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

    <p>It becomes capable of eliciting a learned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the absence of learning have on a reflexive behavior?

    <p>It remains unchanged and reflexive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary negative effect of chronic stress on the immune system?

    <p>Suppressed lymphocyte activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of coping strategy is designed primarily to manage negative emotions?

    <p>Emotion-Focused Coping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does chronic stress directly impact cardiovascular health?

    <p>Reduces the ability of blood vessels to expand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which coping strategy is least beneficial in maintaining social relationships during stressful times?

    <p>Withdrawal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What social factor has been found to primarily influence immune functioning?

    <p>Low perceived control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a negative coping response classified under Emotion-Focused Coping?

    <p>Engaging in emotional eating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about sleep and stress is true?

    <p>Stress can lead to disrupted sleep cycles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary benefit of aerobic exercise in relation to stress management?

    <p>Decreases cortisol levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT associated with effective stress management?

    <p>Substance reliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of the door-in-the-face technique on compliance?

    <p>Creates a sense of obligation through reciprocation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Milgram's Obedience Study, which factor was shown to significantly influence the participants' willingness to administer shocks?

    <p>The proximity of the authority figure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does social loafing primarily refer to in group dynamics?

    <p>Reduced performance due to anonymity in groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon describes the intensification of attitudes following group discussions?

    <p>Group polarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcome is most closely associated with the concept of compliance?

    <p>Responding to a request without any perceived pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, how does arousal affect performance on complex tasks?

    <p>Performance initially improves, then decreases with high arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes groupthink?

    <p>The suppression of dissenting opinions for group harmony</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary aim of low balling in influencing compliance?

    <p>To lead others into making commitments that can be manipulated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the range of IQ typically associated with moderate intellectual disability?

    <p>IQ of 40-55</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of intelligence is defined primarily by having an IQ score of 130 or above?

    <p>Giftedness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does the psychodynamic approach primarily focus on?

    <p>The interplay of id, ego, and superego</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is most indicative of profound intellectual disability?

    <p>IQ below 25</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes genius from giftedness?

    <p>Giftedness plus creativity and achievement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In personality assessment, what are the two broad types of measures used?

    <p>Personality inventories and Projective techniques</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which historical approach to personality focuses on observable behaviors?

    <p>Behaviorist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is typically the expected outcome for individuals with severe intellectual disability?

    <p>Learning only a few words and basic adaptive behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes an individual's characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling?

    <p>Personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of Freud's psychodynamic theory?

    <p>The dynamics of psychic energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Learning

    • Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
    • Changes are stable.
    • Behavior changes due to experience.

    Agenda

    • What is learning?
    • Nonassociative learning
    • Habituation/Sensitization
    • Associative Learning
    • Classical conditioning
    • Operant conditioning
    • Observational learning

    How do animals respond to their environments?

    • Reflexes
    • Instincts
    • Learned behaviors
    • Stimulus: Anything that elicits a response/reaction
    • Response: The behavior that occurs in the presence of a stimulus

    Reflexes

    • Inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli.
    • Controlled by nervous system circuits.
    • Fast, automatic, inflexible.

    Instincts

    • An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli.
    • Fixed action pattern.
    • More complex than reflexes.
    • Once they begin, they run until completion.

    Three Types of Learning

    • Nonassociative learning
    • Habituation
    • Sensitization
    • Associative learning
    • Classical conditioning
    • Operant conditioning
    • Observational learning

    Nonassociative Learning

    • Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a stimulus.
    • Two important types:
    • Habituation
    • Sensitization

    Habituation

    • Reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease.
    • Occurs in response to milder stimuli.

    Habituation vs Sensory Adaptation

    • Sensory Adaptation = Tendency to pay less attention to a nonchanging source of stimulus (sensation and perception).
    • Habituation = A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease.

    Sensitization

    • An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus.
    • Occurs in response to stronger stimuli.

    Associative Learning

    • The formation of associations, or connections, among stimuli and behaviors.
    • Two important types:
    • Classical conditioning
    • Operant conditioning

    Classical Conditioning

    • Associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time.
    • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Something that occurs without learning (reflexive).
    • Conditioned stimulus (CS): Something that must be learned.
    • Unconditioned response (UCR): A reflexive behavior following a stimulus, requires no prior experience.
    • Conditioned response (CR): A learned behavior following a stimulus, requires prior experience.

    Classical Conditioning Phenomena

    • Acquisition: development of a learned response (CR).
    • Contiguity: CS must occur before UCS and close together in time.
    • Contingency: CS and UCS must reliably occur together.
    • Extinction: reduction of a learned response (CR).
    • Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of conditioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest.
    • Inhibition: A conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
    • The CS predicts that the UCS will NOT occur.
    • Latent inhibition: A familiar CS → slower (later) learning; An unfamiliar CS → quicker (immediate) learning
    • Generalization: The tendency to respond to neutral stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus.
    • Discrimination: A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli.
    • Higher-order conditioning: A stimuli + A conditioned stimulus → Conditioned responses.

    Operant Conditioning

    • Associations are formed between behaviors and their consequences.
    • Organisms operate in their environments.
    • Classical conditioning is an association between two stimuli. Behaviors are often subconscious and not voluntary.
    • Operant conditioning is a behavior associated with its consequences. Behaviors are active, intentional, and voluntary.

    B.F. Skinner and the Skinner Box

    • Description of the experimental setup.

    Types of Consequences

    • Positive = Adding a stimulus (Doesn't mean "good").
    • Negative = Subtracting a stimulus (Doesn't mean "bad").
    • Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
    • Positive Reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior.
    • Negative Reinforcement: Taking away something unpleasant to increase the frequency of a behavior.
    • Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
    • Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease the frequency of a behavior.
    • Negative Punishment: Taking away something pleasant to decrease the frequency of a behavior.

    More on Punishment

    • Effective punishments are significant, consistent, and immediate.

    Schedules of Reinforcement

    • Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforce behaviors every time they occur.
    • Partial Reinforcement: Reinforce behavior on some occasions, but not all.
      • Ratio Schedule: Depends on the number of times a behavior occurs.
      • Interval Schedule: Depends on the passage of a certain amount of time.
      • Fixed ratio: Reinforcement follows a set number of behaviors.
      • Variable ratio: Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors.
      • Fixed interval: The first response following a specified interval is reinforced (e.g., every 5 mins).
      • Variable interval: The first response following a varying period is reinforced (e.g., every 3-7 mins).

    Shaping

    • The method of successive approximations.
    • Used to increase the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur.

    Applications of Operant Conditioning

    • Parenting!
    • Training your pets!
    • Token economies
    • Tokens that you earn can be exchanged for other reinforcers
    • Used to increase the frequency of desired behaviors.
    • Commonly used in schools and institutional settings (mental health facilities)

    Observational Learning

    • Learning that occurs when one organism watches the actions of another organism.
    • Social learning/modeling
    • Similar to imitation
    • Many behaviors are influenced by observation:
      • Aggression
      • Language development
      • Moral judgement

    Processes of Observational Learning

    • Attention: More likely to imitate attention-grabbing things.
    • Retention: Maintain a memory.
    • Reproduction: Be able to imitate model.
    • Motivation: Must be motivated to imitate a behavior.

    Cognitive and Biological Influences on Classical Conditioning

    • Early behaviorists advocated the roles of nurture (vs. nature).
    • Only focus on studying external behaviors.
    • Believed that behavior followed the same rules in all organisms.
      • ? Rats → Humans

    The element of surprise!

    • Learning takes place more quickly when the association between the CS and the UCS is relatively surprising and unexpected.

    Applications of Classical Conditioning

    • Overcoming fear
    • Exposure therapy
    • Addiction treatment
    • Advertising
    • Development of prejudice
    • Latent inhibition

    Development

    • Great Debates
    • Newborn Development
    • Infancy & Childhood Development
    • Adolescent Development
    • Adult Development

    Nature vs. Nurture

    • Nature: Heredity, innate predispositions.
    • Nurture: Life experiences, the environment.

    Behavioral Genetics

    • Scientific field that attempts to identify and understand links between genetics and behavior.

    Heritability

    • The likelihood that variations observed in a population are due to genetics.
    • Refers to populations, not individuals.
    • Ranges from 0 to 1.
    • Is influenced by the environment.

    Nature and Nurture

    • Twin studies: Used to evaluate relative contributions of genetics and the environment.
      • Monozygotic (Identical) twins share 100% of their DNA.
      • Dizygotic (Fraternal) twins share ~50% of their DNA.
    • Adoption studies: Compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents.
    • Concordance Rate: The probability that a trait in one person will be shared by another. Usually discussed in relation to identical and fraternal twins.

    Epigenetics

    • The study of gene-environment interactions in the production of phenotypes.

    Continuous or Discontinuous?

    • Pine tree: Developmental continuity
    • Butterfly: Developmental discontinuity

    Universal or Ecological

    • Description of development across cultures.

    Newborn Life

    • 16-18 hours of sleep per day.
    • When awake, alternate between alert looking and moving arms and legs.
    • 2-3 hours of crying per day → early communication!

    Reflexes

    • Babinski
    • Blink
    • Moro
    • Palmer
    • Rooting
    • Stepping
    • Sucking

    Newborn Senses

    • Sensitive to taste and smells.
    • Hearing is most sensitive for the range of frequencies found in human speech.
    • Preference for face-like visual stimuli.

    Infancy & Childhood Development

    • Physical Development
    • Cognitive Development
    • Socio-emotional Development

    Motor Development

    • Progresses in 2 ways simultaneously:
        1. Head → toe
        1. Midline → outward

    Piaget's Theory

    • Children are scientists.
    • Experiment on the world to construct their own knowledge.
    • Learn many things on their own.
    • Intrinsically motivated to learn.
    • Schema
    • Assimilation
    • Accommodation

    Sensorimotor Stage (birth → 2 years)

    • Active exploration of the environment
    • Sensations → Motor responses
    • Language development
    • 18 months: vocab of 10-50 words
    • 2 years: short, but meaningful sentences
    • Object permanence

    Preoperational Stage (2 → 6 years)

    • Characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and illogical reasoning
    • Language acquisition
    • Don't grasp concept of conservation
    • Egocentrism

    Theory of Mind

    • The understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one's own.
    • Emerges around age 3-4.
    • Critical to further social development
    • False Belief Task

    Concrete Operational Stage (6 → 12 years)

    • Characterized by logical reasoning
    • No abstract reasoning yet
    • Can solve conservation problems
    • Hands-on learning

    Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)

    • Characterized by mature reasoning capabilities
    • Abstract reasoning
    • Improved problem solving
    • Idealism

    Remembering Piaget's Stages (ACRONYM)

    • Sensorimotor
    • Sometimes
    • Preoperational
    • Pigs
    • Concrete Operational
    • Can
    • Formal Operational
    • Fly

    Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

    • Failure to consider individual differences.
    • Underestimated abilities of young children.
    • Overestimated abilities of adolescents.
    • Doesn't consider influence of family, community, or culture on development.

    Lev Vygotsky

    • Emphasis on culture in cognitive development
    • Learning through social and collaborative interactions with parents, teachers, and community members
    • Language is KEY for cognitive development
    • Zone of Proximal Development

    Temperament

    • Prevailing patterns of mood, activity, and emotional responsiveness
    • Three dimensions of temperament
      • Surgency/Extraversion
      • Negative Affect
      • Effortful Control

    Attachment

    • Emotional bond connecting an infant to a parent or caregiver.
    • Mobility helps determine timing of attachment.
    • Attachment Styles
      • Secure
      • Avoidant
      • Anxious-Ambivalent
      • Disorganized

    Parenting Styles

    • Parental Support: Empathy and recognition of child's perspective
      • High behavioral regulation
      • High parental support
      • Authoritative
      • Low behavioral regulation
      • Low parental support
      • Authoritarian
      • Indulgent
      • Uninvolved

    Adolescence

    • Period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood
    • Puberty: Period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity
    • Brain Development
      • Second critical period for brain growth.
      • Gray matter growth peaks ~11-12 years old.
      • Cortex thinning throughout teen years.
      • Abnormal gray matter thinning → schizophrenia.
      • Myelination continues into young adulthood
      • Less accurate interpretation of others' emotions. Emotional parts of the brain mature before the rational parts. Risky behavior in teens.

    Young Adulthood

    • Physical status: As good as it's ever going to be!
    • Cognition: Move into "postformal thought"
    • Learn to be OK with "it depends" or "there isn't a right answer"
    • Relationships: Solid identity is key.

    Midlife

    • Physical status:
      • Graying hair
      • Menopause for women
    • Cognition: Tends to remain relatively stable
    • Relationships: Big changes in social and work roles
    • Kids move out 'Empty Nest' – Cultural differences
    • Begin caring for aging parents
    • Transition out of the workforce
    • Midlife crisis = Myth!

    Late Adulthood

    • Physical status: Gradual declines in sensory abilities
    • Cognition: Tends to remain relatively stable
    • Only a minority of the population experiences dementia
    • Relationships: Increase in emotional well-being
    • Fewer, close friendships
    • Marriages buffer against stress

    The Healthy Mind: Stress & Health

    • What is Stress?
    • Effects of Stress on Health
    • Stress Management

    What is Stress

    • Stress: An unpleasant emotional state resulting from the perception of danger
    • Stressor: Stimulus that causes stress

    Benefits of Stress

    • Stress can be good in moderation:
      • Increase chances of survival
      • Motivates performance
      • Can increase long-term health
    • Too much stress can be harmful:
      • Interferes with performance
      • Development of psychological disorders

    Optimal Performance

    • Graph showing the relationship between stress severity and duration and performance level.

    ... (and the remaining existing notes)

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