Human Anatomy And Physiology With Pathophysiology Lecture PDF

https://www.britishjournalofnursing.com/media/xg5acziu/cardiovascular_system_1000x667.jpg?width=960&height=540&format=webp&qu ality=80&bgcolor=Whit e&v=1d8db1ffdb50e00 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY L...

https://www.britishjournalofnursing.com/media/xg5acziu/cardiovascular_system_1000x667.jpg?width=960&height=540&format=webp&qu ality=80&bgcolor=Whit e&v=1d8db1ffdb50e00 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY LECTURE Instructor: Mr. Crismar O. Debil, RPh Debil, RPh | 2023 UNIT III CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION Debil, RPh | 2023 OBJECTIVES Introducing the significance of cellular level of organization to anatomy and physiology. Introduce the cell structure and function. Discuss the movement across membranes. Discuss the cell activity. Debil, RPh | 2023 TOPIC OUTLINE CHAPTER 6 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 6.1. Cell Structure 6.2. Organelles 6.3. Functions of the Cells Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Cell Structure Cell Basic living, structural, and functional unit of the body. Basic living unit of all organisms. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Cell Structure Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Organelles Specialized structures within the cells; possess characteristic shapes. Perform specific functions in cellular growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Nucleus Parts: Nuclear envelope – double membrane; separates nucleus from the cytoplasm Nuclear pore – controls movement of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm Nucleoli – function in producing ribosomes; sites of rRNA synthesis Contains most of the cell’s hereditary information, called genes. Human somatic (body) cells; 46 chromosomes (23 inherited from each parent) Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Ribosomes Sites of protein synthesis Some are attached to the outer surface of nuclear membrane and endoplasmic reticulum (rough) – synthesize proteins for specific organelles, for insertion in plasma membrane, or for export Others are “free” or unattached to other cytoplasmic structures Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Endoplasmic Reticulum Network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs or tubules; extends from nuclear envelope , projects throughout the cytoplasm Distinct forms: (1) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, and (2) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – with ribosomes attached to it; involved in synthesizing proteins for export from the cell Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – synthesize fatty acids, and steroids (estrogen, testosterone); detoxification of chemicals within cells Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Golgi Complex / Golgi Apparatus 3 to 10 cisternae; Closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs Entry (cis) face – cisterna facing the rough ER Exit (trans) face – cisterna facing the plasma membrane Medial cisternae – between entry and exit faces Collects, modifies, packages, and distributes lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Lysosomes – membrane-bound vesicles formed from Golgi apparatus; contain various enzymes that act as intracellular digestive system. Peroxisomes – small, membrane-bound vesicles; contain enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Mitochondria With inner and outer membranes separated by a space. Outer membranes – smooth Inner membranes – numerous folds (cristae) Major sites of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production within cells Carry out aerobic respiration (chemical reactions that require O2 to break down food molecules to produce ATP) Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Cytoskeleton Proteins supporting the cell; holds organelles in place; enable the cell to change shape Microtubules, Microfilaments, and Intermediate filaments. Microtubules – hollow structures formed from protein subunits; support cytoplasm, assist in cell division, component of some organelles (cilia, flagella) Microfilaments – small fibrils formed from protein subunits, structurally support the cytoplasm, involved with cell movement Intermediate filaments – fibrils; smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger than microfilaments; mechanical support Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Centrioles Centrosome – specialized zone of cytoplasm, close to nucleus, site of microtubule formation; contains two centrioles (perpendicular to each other) Centriole – small, cylindrical organelle with nine triplets; each triplet consists of three microtubules joined together Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli Cilia – numerous on surface cells that line the respiratory tract Flagella – structure similar to cilia but are much longer; occur only one per cell (Example: sperm cell) Microvilli – specialized extensions of the cell membrane supported by microfilaments; increase surface area; abundant on surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Organelles Source: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VI. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Functions of the Cells Functions of the Cell Cell metabolism and energy use Synthesis of molecules Communication Reproduction Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023 TOPIC OUTLINE CHAPTER 7 CELL MEMBRANE 7.1. Cell Membrane 7.2. Movement Across Membranes Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Cell Membrane Cell Membrane Plasma membrane Outermost component of the cell Fluid-mosaic model Selectively permeable Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Cell Membrane Lipid Bilayer Made of three types of lipid molecules Phospholipids – lipids containing phosphorus Cholesterol – steroid with attached –OH group Glycolipids – lipids with attached carbohydrate groups Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Cell Membrane Membrane Proteins Integral proteins – extend into or through the lipid bilayer; firmly embedded in the lipid bilayer; most are transmembrane proteins (span the entire lipid bilayer, protrude into both cytosol and extracellular fluid) Peripheral proteins – not firmly embedded in the membrane; attached to polar heads of membrane lipids, or to integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Cell Membrane Functions of Membrane Proteins Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Cell Membrane Functions of Membrane Proteins Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Cell Membrane Functions of Membrane Proteins Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Movement through the cell membrane Enzymes, glycogen, potassium ions – found in greater concentrations intracellularly Na+, Ca2+, Cl- - found in greater concentrations extracellularly Movement may be passive or active: Passive membrane transport – does not need energy (ATP); diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion Active membrane transport – requires energy (ATP); active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Movement through the cell membrane Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Diffusion Movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration of solute to an area of lower concentration of the same solute in solution. Concentration gradient – difference in concentration of a chemical from inside to the outside of the plasma membrane Lipid-soluble molecules (O2, CO2, steroids) can pass readily through the phospholipid bilayer. Some small, water-soluble substances can diffuse between the phospholipid molecules of cell membranes. Other water-soluble substances can diffuse across the membrane via cell membrane channels Leak channels – constantly allow ions to pass through Gated channels – limit the movement of ions by opening and closing Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Osmosis Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to lower water concentration. Concentration of a solution is expressed in terms of solute concentration. Water diffuses toward areas of high solute concentration and dilutes those solutes. Osmotic pressure – force required to prevent movement of water across the membrane. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Osmosis Hypotonic solution – lower concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm; less osmotic pressure than the cell, causing it to swell. Isotonic solution – concentrations of solutes and water are the same on both sides of the cell membrane; cell neither shrinks nor swells. Hypertonic solution – solution has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell; results to cell shrinkage or crenation. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms Carrier molecules – proteins involved in carrier-mediated transport mechanisms; move large, water-soluble molecules or electrically charged ions across the cell membrane Exhibit specificity Types: (1) facilitated diffusion, (2) active transport, and (3) secondary active transport Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Facilitated Diffusion Carrier-mediated transport process. Moves substances across the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Movement along the concentration gradient, ATP is not required Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Active Transport Carrier-mediated transport process. Moves substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of higher concentration; against a concentration gradient. Accumulate substances on one side of the cell membrane at concentrations many times greater than those on the other side. Requires energy (ATP); If ATP is unavailable, active transport stops. In some cases, can exchange one substance for another. Sodium-potassium pump – moves Na+ out of the cells and K+ into cells Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Active Transport Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Active Transport Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Secondary Active Transport Involves active transport of one substance (Ex: Na+) across the cell membrane; diffusion of that transported substance down its concentration gradient provides the energy to transport a second substance (Ex: glucose) across the cell membrane. Cotransport – diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the transported substance. Countertransport – diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that of the transported substance. Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Endocytosis Uptake of material through the cell membrane by formation of a vesicle; cell membrane folds inward to form a vesicle containing the material to be taken into the cell. Usually exhibits specificity. Cell membrane contains specific receptor molecules that bind to specific substances; when specific substance binds to the receptor molecule, endocytosis is triggered then substance is transported into the cell (receptor-mediated endocytosis) Phagocytosis – cell-eating; endocytosis when solid particles are ingested; white blood cells phagocytize bacteria, cell debris, and foreign particles. Pinocytosis – cell drinking; smaller vesicles are formed, contain liquid rather than particles. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Endocytosis Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Exocytosis Secretory vesicles – membrane-bound sacs, accumulate materials for release from the cell. Process that takes place when secretory vesicles move to the cell membrane, where the membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the material in the vesicle is eliminated from the cell. Example: secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas, secretion of mucus by the salivary glands. Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VII. CELL MEMBRANE Movement Across Membranes Exocytosis Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023 TOPIC OUTLINE CHAPTER 8 CELL ACTIVITY 8.1. Gene Expression 8.2. Cell Life Cycle 8.3. Differentiation 8.4. Apoptosis Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Gene Expression Gene Expression DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; DNA influences the structural and functional characteristics of the entire organism because it directs protein synthesis. Proteins produced in a cell include: - structural components in the cell - proteins secreted outside the cell - enzymes that regulate chemical reactions in the cell Gene – sequence of nucleotides providing set of instructions for making a specific protein. Steps of gene expression: i. Transcription ii. Translation Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Gene Expression Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Gene Expression Translation of mRNA to produce a protein Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell life cycle 2 major phases: i. Interphase – nondividing phase; DNA is replicated; two strands of DNA separate from each other, and each strand becomes a template for the production of new DNA; at the end of interphase, a cell has 2 complete sets of genetic material. ii. Cell division – formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell life cycle Each cell of the human body (except sex cells) contains 46 chromosomes; sex cells have half the number of chromosomes as other cells The 46 chromosomes are the diploid number of chromosomes; organized to form 23 pairs of chromosomes; Among the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosomes (determine individual’s sex) Autosomes – remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes Sex chromosomes: Two X chromosomes – if person is a female X chromosome and Y chromosome – if person is a male Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Mitosis Parent cell divides to form 2 daughter cells with the same amount and type of DNA as the parent cell. Divided into 4 stages: i. Prophase ii. Metaphase iii. Anaphase iv. Telophase Sources: Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell Life Cycle Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell Life Cycle Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell Life Cycle Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell Life Cycle Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell Life Cycle Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Cell Life Cycle Cell Life Cycle Source: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Differentiation Differentiation Process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions. Some portions of DNA are active, but others are inactive; Active and inactive sections of DNA differ with each cell type. Sources: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  VIII. CELL ACTIVITY Apoptosis Apoptosis Programmed cell death. Process by which cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and controlled. Eliminates damaged or potentially dangerous cells, virus-infected cells, and potential cancer cells. Regulated by specific genes. As this process begins, the chromatin within the nucleus condenses and fragments, followed by fragmentation of nucleus, then death and fragmentation of the cell. Sources: VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. Debil, RPh | 2023  REFERENCES Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy and physiology (14th ed.). United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A.. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology (9th ed.). United States of America: McGraw-Hill Education. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A.. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology (10th ed.). United States of America: McGraw-Hill Education. Debil, RPh | 2023