Humanistic Perspectives PDF

PS338: Humanistic Perspectives Dr Jenny Groarke University University ofGalway.ie ofGalway.ie  Historical Underpinnings Existentialism HUMANISTIC Influential contributors P...

PS338: Humanistic Perspectives Dr Jenny Groarke University University ofGalway.ie ofGalway.ie  Historical Underpinnings Existentialism HUMANISTIC Influential contributors PSYCHOLOGY OV E RV I E W Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers George Kelly  HISTORIC AL UNDERPINNINGS Emerged as an explicit movement in psychology in the 1950s Was marked by the founding of the American Association for Humanistic Psychology (AAHP) Founders included George Kelly, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers They felt that core aspects of human experience were being left out of account by the psychology of the time  CONSCIOUS AWARENESS Rather than analysing a person from the standpoint of an external observer, the humanistic psychologist tries to work from the standpoint of the people themselves Subjective awareness/experiential approach – how people experience their worlds and themselves Also known as a phenomenological approach  PHENOMENOLOGY: AWARENESS IS EVERYTHING At the center of humanity Central insight: Phenomenology is psychologically more important than the world itself. Basis of free will  PHENOMENOLOGY: AWARENESS IS EVERYTHING “We do not see things as they are. We see them as we are.” — Talmud “It is not things in themselves that trouble us, but our opinions of things.” —Epictetus “If you are distressed about anything external, the pain is not due to the thing itself, but to your estimate of it; and this you have the power to revoke at any moment.” —Marcus Aurelius “I do not react to some absolute reality, but to my perception of this reality. It is this perception which for me is reality.” —Carl Rogers  PHENOMENOLOGY: AWARENESS IS EVERYTHING Construal Everyone’s is different. Forms the basis of how you live your life Free will is achieved by choosing your construal. Introspection  PHENOMENOLOGY The study of conscious experience as it exists for the person, without any attempt to reduce, divide, or compartmentalize it in any way. Awareness is everything Here and now Focus on interior, experiential and existential aspects of personality  EXISTENTIAL PHILOSOPHY Existential = related to human existence Thousands of years of philosophy - particularly important are those philosophers whose work is aimed at making sense of human existence Philosophical movements that are key to existential therapy are Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy  EXISTENTIALISM A reaction against rationalism, science, and the Industrial Revolution Purpose: regain contact with the experience of being alive and aware Key questions: What is the nature of existence? How does it feel? And what does it mean?  KIERKEGAARD Protested vigorously against Christian dogma and so called ‘objectivity of science’ - Both of these where ways of avoiding the anxiety inherent in human existence Truth could only be discovered subjectively by the individual in action Most lacking was people’s courage to take the leap of faith and live with passion and commitment from the inward depth of existence (Van Deurzen, 2002).  NIETZSCHE ‘God is Dead’ proposition and how we re-evaluate existence in light of this He invited people to shake off the shackles of moral restraint and discover their free will and allow themselves to soar to unknown heights and learn to live with new intensity Dare to stand out, and not be part of herd First time themes of freedom, choice, responsibility and courage are introduced  HEIDEGGER Used the phenomenological approach to understand the meaning of being Poetry and deep philosophical thinking can bring greater insight to what it means to be in the world rather than scientific insight Favoured hermeneutics – to understand how a person subjectively experiences something  SARTRE ‘Father’ of existentialism – we give meaning to our lives through our own choices and actions Contributed other existential strands including emotions, imagination and person’s insertion into a social and political world Other contributions come from literature include Camus, Marcel, Jaspers, Tillich  EXISTENTIALIST AND HUMANISTIC THEORISTS B OT H … Focus on Phenomenology Believe in Free Will Believe meaning is important Emphasize the uniqueness of each individual  HUMANISM AND EXISTENTIALISM DIFFER… On Human Nature… Existentialists don’t believe in “human nature”, or see it as containing both good and evil Humanists think human nature is basically good Optimism vs. Pessimism Humanists have an optimistic outlook about humanity and the future Existentialists tend to be a bit more gloomy/stark  BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF EXISTENTIAL THERAPY The Primacy of Experience: Every individual is unique Isolation: We are born alone and die alone Self- Awareness: Live in the here and now Free Choice: People can choose what they become Freedom: People fear freedom because with freedom comes choice and the possibility of choosing poorly (responsibility) Responsibility: We are responsible for our own lives Genes and environment are important. They are just not deterministic Many individuals, at some point, struggle with accepting this responsibility and, therefore, deny or limit their own freedom Personal Meaning: What is the purpose of living? How we live our life (being-in-the-world)  THE THREE PARTS OF EXPERIENCE Three simultaneous modes of the world characterize us in our Dasein (our way of being in the world): Biological experience (Umwelt) Social experience (Mitwelt) Psychological experience (Eigenwelt) These dimensions are interwoven We are stretched between a positive pole of what we aspire to on each dimension and a negative pole of what we fear  “THROWN-NESS” AND ANGST Thrown-ness An important basis of your experience Being thrown into modern society is particularly difficult. Angst or existential anxiety Anguish Forlornness Despair  BAD FAITH Our moral imperative is to face thrown-ness and angst Requires existential courage or optimistic toughness This can be avoided → Living in bad faith  BAD FAITH Creates three problems 1. Living a cowardly lie 2. Unhappiness 3. It is impossible. “What is not possible is not to choose... If I do not choose, I am still choosing.” — Sartre  SARTRE AND BAD FAITH “Statements of bad faith”; inauthentic to assume that our existence is controlled by forces external to ourselves Displace responsibility onto others (“My boss made me work late”) Think of self as helpless victim of circumstances Attribute behavior to unconscious drives (“I’d never do something like that”) Absolve themselves of responsibility by a sort of temporary insanity (“It was the beer talking”)  AUTHENTIC EXISTENCE The alternative to bad faith Will not relieve loneliness and unhappiness Because every person is alone and doomed Life has no meaning beyond what you give it. The essence of the human experience: understanding that you must die  AUTHENTIC EXISTENCE Allows us to be aware of our freedom; this gives us dignity. The existential challenge Ask: What does life want from me? Strive to better the human condition  AUTHENTIC EXISTENCE You are Master of Be honest, Takes moral Easier said mortal, your your own insightful courage than done! life is short destiny and morally correct  THE EASTERN ALTERNATIVE Existentialism is European, Western, and focused on the individual. Existentialism is fundamentally wrong. Anatta This illusion of a separate and independent self is harmful. True nature of reality All people are interconnected. Immortality  THE EASTERN ALTERNATIVE Anicca Enlightenment Achieved by understanding anicca and that the well-being of others matters as much as your own Leads to universal compassion Nirvana: a serene, selfless state  IRVIN YALOM Existential therapy – exploring life’s ‘big questions: Death, meaninglessness, free will Working with clients to make meaning Taking personal responsibility and ownership of life Yalom on the gift of therapy: https://www.youtube.com/w atch?v=73wVVNrDI4I HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY  OPTIMISTIC HUMANISM: ROGERS AND MASLOW Began with existential assumptions Phenomenology is central People have free will. Added another crucial idea People are basically good.  THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: MASLOW Basic assumption: The ultimate need or motive is to self-actualize. Hierarchy of needs: how human motivation is characterized Lower needs must be met first. FIGURE 12.1 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS  ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908-1970) In the late 1950’s Maslow was one of the key figures in establishing both the Association and the Journal of Humanistic Psychology He was later to say that his focus on the positive aspects of personality was a direct consequence of his mother’s mistreatment of him, a “reaction formation” to the things his mother did and the qualities she represented (Maslow, 1979)  MASLOW’S THEORY OF MOTIVATION Maslow argues that human needs form a hierarchy This hierarchy is often portrayed as a pyramid Human needs vary in their intensity and power Some needs are extremely primitive, basic, and demanding Maslow calls these physiological needs, because they are so fundamental, they are at the base of the pyramid They pertain to air, water, food, things necessary for survival  MASLOW Maslow said that the needs lower in the pyramid are deficiency based motives, whereas high levels particularly self-actualisation are growth based motives (Maslow, 1955) The lower needs arise from deprivation and satisfying such needs means escaping unpleasant conditions Self-actualisation in contrast, is more like the distant call of your unrealized potential as a person, satisfying this is not about avoiding an unpleasant state but rather it’s the seeking of growth (Carver & Scheier,2000)  MASLOW It was self actualisation that fully absorbed Maslow’s interest According to Maslow everyone has the potential to self actualise and everyone has the intrinsic desire to become more and more the person that he or she is capable of becoming Self actualisation can occur for any person who is in the process of becoming more congruent, more integrated, and more complete a person.  MASLOW Maslow saw that some people actualise more than others He sought out people who displayed actualising properties often From among personal acquaintances and public and historical figures, Maslow selected about thirty probable self-actualisers, including Thomas Jefferson, William James, Abraham Lincoln, Henry David Thoreau and Albert Einstein  TYPIC AL FEATURES OF A SELF ACTUALISER ‘The most significant of these is being involved in a cause outside their own skin, in something outside of themselves. They are devoted, working at something, something which is very precious to them, some calling or vocation in the old sense, the priestly sense. They work at something which fate has called them to somehow and which they work at and which they love, so that the work – joy dichotomy in them disappears’ (Maslow, 1973, p.45) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKHeA8We5pI (Maslow on self actualization)  THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: PRACTICAL APPLIC ATIONS Practical applications Career choice Employee motivation Understand happiness in different cultures  CRITIQUE There is little evidence to bear the model’s hierarchical aspect. Cultural bias - Some cultures place communal needs before any others. The starving artist Finally, there is little proof to propose that people are motivated to gratify only one need level at a time, except for in situations where there is a disagreement between needs.  SELF-ACTUALIZATION: ROGERS People have one basic tendency and striving: to actualize, maintain, and enhance their own experience People can be understood only from the perspective of their phenomenal field. Actualization Goal of existence is to satisfy this need  C ARL ROGERS 1902-1987 people are inherently good and have an innate desire for becoming better Did not view personality development in terms of satisfying a hierarchy of needs but rather that personality development centres on one’s self concept or one’s opinion of oneself and the way one is treated by others  ROGERS “I am quite aware that out of defensiveness and inner fear individuals can and do behave in ways that are incredibly cruel, horribly destructive, immature, regressive, antisocial, and harmful. Yet one of the most refreshing and invigorating parts of my experience is to work with such individuals and to discover the strongly positive directional tendencies which exist in them, as in all of us, at the deepest levels.” (Rogers, 1961, p. 27).  ROGER’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Self Actualisation The need for positive regard Self Concept  SELF ACTUALISATION In Roger’s view the potential for positive, healthy growth will naturally express itself in every person’s behaviour, if there are no strong opposing influences This tendency towards growth is termed actualisation This is a tendency to develop capabilities in ways that maintain or enhance the organism and is presumed to exist in every living creature  ACT UAL I SING T E NDE NCY ( ROGERS) This actualising tendency is reflected partly in physical functioning Your body actualises as your immune system works to remove disease organisms. Your body actualizes as it grows bigger and stronger Potato sprouting roots to the light This actualising tendency also applies to personality Rogers assumed this tendency was part of human nature and this is reflected in another term he used, ‘the organismic valuing process’ This refers to the idea that the organism automatically evaluates ACTUALISING its experiences and actions to tell TENDENCY whether they are actualising If not, there is a sense created by this valuing process that something is not quite right  POSITIVE REGARD People have a strong motive Much of the affection that to be accepted and to have people get in day to day lives the love, friendship and is conditional affection of others, particularly those that matter Two types to them, and Rogers called this ‘Positive regard’ Unconditional positive regard –affection given without special conditions, with no ‘”strings” attached Conditional positive regard – Affection given only if certain conditions are satisfied. Conditions may vary but principle the same, I’ll like you and accept you, but only if you act in a particular way  SELF CONCEPT Rogers assumed that the self doesn’t exist at birth but that infants gradually differentiate self from nonself. Continues to grow The self-concept is the set of qualities a person views as part of himself or herself Two distinctions: The actual self is what you think you are really like as a person right now and the ideal self is an image of the kind of person you want to be  SELF CONCEPT The Self-concept develops over time and is heavily dependant on the attitudes of those who constitute the individual’s significant others If others punish self-actualising behaviour A conflict can emerge between the need for positive regard and the actualising tendency  SELF CONCEPT AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY People who try to create a self-concept that runs counter to the actualising tendency as a result hold themselves in low self esteem and have a negative self concept This negative self concept can induce behaviour which reinforces images of inadequacy and worthlessness Behaviour is not only what happens to us in the external world but also a function of how we feel about ourselves on the inside. We are likely to behave in ways that reflect our perception of ourselves  INCONGRUENCE Incongruence is disorganisation, a breakdown in the unitary sense of self When there is incongruence between self concept and experience, a person will use defences so as to maintain consistency Defences include denial and distortion of experience  THE FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSON Be clearly aware of reality and yourself. Face the world without fear, self-doubt, or neurotic defenses. Importance of unconditional positive regard Conditions of worth Limit your freedom to act and think. Life is rich in emotion and self-discovery, reflectiveness, spontaneity, etc. Goal of therapy: help the client become a fully functioning person  CLIENT-CENTRED THERAPY ◼ Role of the therapist: Role as a genuine, authentic person rather than an authority figure ◼ Techniques: Empathy and unconditional positive regard, perspective-taking and reflection (rather than interpretation and suggestion) ◼ Focuses on understanding the subjective experience of the person – how things appear to them  CLIENT CENTRED (ROGERIAN) THERAPY Process of non-directive counselling Search for underlying meaning and underlying values – Why do we behave as we do, what are we really trying to achieve A therapeutic relationship in which the client gains a more effective understanding of him/herself  CLIENT CENTRED THERAPY PROCESS Individual therapy, semi-structured according to the issues that the client wishes to address The therapist must provide certain elements to ensure the therapeutic process will succeed: ✓Unconditional positive regard, ✓genuine empathic warmth, ✓being in a state of congruence, ✓able to work non-directively By actively listening to the story, you gain an understanding of the person’s feelings, beliefs, values and convictions about life  IN 1986 THE Y E AR B E FOR E H E DI E D, ROG E R S STAT E D T H AT: Empathy is one of the most potent aspects of therapy, because it releases, it confirms, it brings even the most frightened client into the human race. If a person can be understood, he or she belongs.  CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY Efficacy research Real and ideal self-perceptions became more closely aligned after therapy. Criticism of research Both real and ideal selves change with therapy. Having closely aligned real and ideal selves is not always a good measure of psychological adjustment.  PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS: KELLY Based on how one’s cognitive system assembles various construals of the world into individually held theories Help to determine how new experiences are construed Each person has a unique set.  PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS: KELLY Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test Identify three important people and then identify how two of them are similar and different from the third. Repeat with ideas, traits, and so on. How things are discriminated reveals a person’s constructs.  PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS: KELLY Chronically accessible constructs Sources of constructs Personal construct system Sociality corollary  PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS: KELLY Constructs and reality Constructive alternativism Implications for science Scientific paradigms are frameworks for construing the meaning of data. Researchers choose which paradigm to use. Importance of being aware that other paradigms exist and are equally plausible  PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS: KELLY Maximizers versus satisficers Question the construals of reality that you are taught “How you choose to see the world will affect everything in your life” (p. 444).  POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Health means more than the absence of disease. Traditional psychology overemphasizes psychopathology and malfunction. Positive psychology focuses on positive phenomenon. The rebirth of humanistic psychology Focuses on uniquely human capacities and the meaning of life True happiness comes from overcoming important challenges. Most people find life meaningful.  VIRTUES Also called character strengths Problem: deciding how people should behave Look for attributes viewed as virtues in all cultures Core virtues: courage, justice, humanity (compassion), temperance, wisdom, transcendence Difficult to identify virtues for everyone May be evolutionarily based But not everyone has them all.  SELF DETERMINATION THEORY Edward Deci and Richard Ryan People are motivated to grow by three needs: Autonomy – Finding your own way in the world and making your own decisions Competence – Finding something you are good at and becoming better Relatedness means establishing meaningful and satisfying ties to other people  POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Positive Psychology investigates the traits, processes, and social institutions that promote a happy and meaningful life Also look factors that contribute or detract from happiness Activities they argue that increase happiness include remembering “to count your blessings” and doing favours and other acts of kindness for other people  POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Very Optimistic viewpoint – look at the positive characteristics and emotions Has been criticised by old school Humanistic psychologists “Trial and despair appear to be as integral to well being as optimism and positive self- appraisals” (Schneider, 2014,p.92) Positive psychology has not had much to say about existential anxiety or the difficult issues which arise with free will.  A WORD OF C AUTION Poor, low quality research (type of interventions looked at – resilience therapy, gratitude therapy, mindfulness, etc. etc.) Lack of active control groups, small samples Positivity (!) bias highlighted in literature The ‘burden of positivity’ Toxic positivity HUMANISTIC AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Should we always try to expect the best? Optimistic people are less fearful, more willing to take risks, and relatively happy, but may also take foolish risks or fail to anticipate problems. Positive psychology is not a complete rebirth of humanism.  THE MYSTERY OF EXPERIENCE Unique contributions of the humanistic approach Reminds us of the mystery of experience To understand another person, you must understand his construals. Consequence: cultural and moral relativism Do not judge the values and practices of other cultures from the perspective of your own.