HR-336 Midterm PDF

1. Migration Theory Neoclassical push-pull models: 1. Involuntary Migration: Initial migrations in developing countries are often driven by factors like poverty and conflict, challenging neoclassical assumptions of voluntary choice. 2. Limited Explanatory Power: The theory does n...

1. Migration Theory Neoclassical push-pull models: 1. Involuntary Migration: Initial migrations in developing countries are often driven by factors like poverty and conflict, challenging neoclassical assumptions of voluntary choice. 2. Limited Explanatory Power: The theory does not fully explain why migration may cease before wage equalization occurs. 3. Self-Selective Process: Personal factors such as age, gender, and social class influence how individuals respond to migration factors and overcome obstacles. 4. Community Influence: Migration decisions are often shaped by family and community migration histories, highlighting the social context of migration. Segmented labour markets: 1. Structural Need for Immigration: According to Piore (1979), First World economies are structured to necessitate a certain level of immigration. 2. Labour Market Segmentation: Modern capitalism creates a dual labour market: ○ Primary Labour Market: Offers secure jobs, high pay, generous benefits, and good working conditions. ○ Secondary Labour Market: Characterized by instability, low pay, limited benefits, and poor working conditions. 3. Worker Shortage in Secondary Sector: Developed societies often face a shortage of workers willing to accept secondary sector jobs, prompting employers to recruit immigrants to fill these positions. Cumulative causation: Cumulative causation is the idea that once a process starts, it tends to build on itself, making the effects stronger over time. For example, in migration, when people move to a new country, they might make it easier for others from their hometown to follow by sharing information, providing support, or creating a community. Over time, this can lead to more and more people migrating, as each wave of migrants helps the next. It’s like a snowball effect, where small changes lead to bigger and bigger outcomes. New economics of labour migration: 1. Focus on Meso Units: This theory emphasizes the role of families, households, and culturally defined units in migration decisions. 2. Collective Decision-Making: Migration is seen as a collective choice made by households, aimed not only at increasing income but also at managing risks associated with market and labor market failures.  3. Context of Individual Behavior: While individual decisions matter, they are best understood within the group context, with families considering wage differentials as a significant factor in choosing work destinations. 4. Role of Remittances: Remittances are viewed as part of a mutually beneficial arrangement between migrants and their families, supporting the household's economic stability. Social capital and social networks: Social Capital (Portes, 1995): Defined as the ability of individuals to access scarce resources through their membership in social networks and broader social structures. Social Networks: Compared to social freeways, these networks facilitate quick and efficient movement within the social landscape. A key aspect of social inequality is that not everyone has the same access to these networks, impacting their ability to acquire resources. Transnationalism: Transnationalism refers to the way people, ideas, and activities move across national borders, connecting different countries. It often involves immigrants maintaining ties with their home country while living in another. For example, people might send money back home, share cultural traditions, or be politically active in both places. It highlights how globalization has made the world more interconnected. Remittances: Remittances are money that people send to their home country, usually to support their family or friends. This is common among immigrants who work in another country and send part of their earnings back to help with things like living expenses, education, or healthcare. Remittances are an important source of income for many families in developing countries. 2. Global Trends in Migration Myth 1: Migration is at an all-time high The UNHCR claims we're in a "global displacement crisis," with record numbers of people displaced by conflict, violence, and climate change in 2022. Reality: Migration levels were actually higher in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by European imperialism and industrialization, which created large labor demands globally. Myth 2: People migrate voluntarily or by force  Scholars argue it's hard to clearly separate voluntary from forced migration. Refugees face persecution, while other migrants move for socioeconomic reasons, making the distinction less clear. Myth 3: Development in poor countries will reduce migration Organizations like the World Bank assume development will reduce migration, but the relationship is complex. The "migration hump" thesis (Martin and Taylor, 1996) suggests migration initially increases with development before declining, as seen in Mexico post-NAFTA. Though widely supported, recent studies show mixed results, with some finding a negative link between development aid and migration Myth 4: Emigration is a desperate flight from misery Poverty was initially viewed as a key cause of migration, but it's now recognized that the poorest often lack the resources to migrate, especially internationally. Typically, it’s not the "poorest of the poor" who migrate. While there can be a connection between migration and poverty alleviation, poverty alone isn't the main driver of migration. Myth 5: Immigrants steal jobs and drive down wages The belief is that immigrants take jobs from local workers by accepting lower pay, leading to wage stagnation and job insecurity for native workers. Reality: 1. Wage Stagnation: Lower-income earners have not benefited from economic growth, but this is not primarily due to immigration. 2. Negative Correlation: Immigration tends to increase during periods of economic growth and low unemployment, suggesting that immigrants do not cause job losses. 3. Causality: Immigration often responds to labor shortages rather than causing unemployment and wage issues. 4. Job Filling: Immigrants typically fill specific vacancies in sectors where there are skill shortages, rather than competing directly with local workers for the same jobs. 5. Labor Market Expansion: The assumption that there is a fixed number of jobs is flawed; economies grow and create more jobs as populations increase, and immigration contributes to this growth. Myth 6: Immigrant Integration Has Failed The perception is that many immigrants face long-term unemployment, welfare dependency, and segregation, making it hard for their children to escape disadvantage. Reality: In the long run, immigrant integration is largely successful. The children and grandchildren of immigrants often perform well, overcoming challenges through their own efforts in language and education. Second-generation immigrants, even those from low-skilled backgrounds, typically achieve much higher levels of education than their parents, indicating positive integration over time. Myth 7: Mass Immigration Produces Mass Segregation This is a significant issue in Europe, where concerns about racial and ethnic segregation have been voiced by politicians and the media. It is believed that large-scale immigration has led to the creation of permanent ethnic underclasses living in segregated neighborhoods characterized by high unemployment and poverty. Reality: While some immigrant neighborhoods do face poverty and disadvantage, the levels of segregation among immigrant groups are generally not as high as perceived, and these issues do not compare to historical segregation in the U.S. There is no evidence that racial and ethnic segregation is increasing despite ongoing immigration. It is important to differentiate between ghettos and ethnic enclaves: ○ Ghettos are areas predominantly inhabited by one ethnic or racial group, formed through discrimination and exclusion, leading to multigenerational poverty (e.g., Jewish ghettos, African American urban segregation). ○ Ethnic enclaves are racially mixed areas where different groups concentrate but still interact with others. Myth 8: Immigration Sends Crime Rates Soaring There's a common belief that immigration increases crime, especially in the U.S., where "illegal" immigrants are often viewed as a crime risk due to their marginalization. While some migrant and minority groups are overrepresented in crime statistics and prison populations, this doesn't necessarily mean immigration causes more crime. Factors like unemployment, income, and education also affect crime rates. Studies show that immigrants often settle in areas with pre-existing higher crime rates, which can create a misleading correlation. Moreover, young men commit most crimes, and many migrants fall into this demographic. Research, especially in the U.S., finds no evidence that immigration increases crime. In fact, many forms of immigration are associated with lower crime rates. Immigrants, despite lower education and income levels, tend to commit fewer crimes than native-born populations. Global Trend 1: Growing Numbers of Refugees Worldwide Between 2005 and 2019, the number of refugees globally doubled. However, there was a decline in the number of people seeking asylum in wealthier countries during this period. Most refugees are now located in the Global South: ○ In high-income countries, refugees made up only 2.7% of migrants. ○ In middle-income countries, they accounted for 22.5% of migrants. ○ In low-income countries, they represented 44.5% of migrants. Wealthy OECD countries saw a 34% decline in asylum applications after peak numbers in 2015 and 2016. Increasingly, then, countries in the Global North have become less of a destination for refugees, highlighting a significant shift in migration patterns. Global Trend 2: Economic Considerations are the Priority Canada, more than many other countries, "cherry picks" newcomers, selecting highly skilled individuals through its points system. This approach extends to refugees, focusing on those likely to settle quickly. The OECD has noted a trend toward more selective targeting of immigrants, particularly in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, due to concerns over immigrants' labor market outcomes, such as declining earnings, unemployment, and underemployment. In 2015, Canada introduced the "Express Entry" model, which involves employers, provinces, and territories in selecting immigrants to match existing labor market needs. Many countries in the Global North are competing to attract high-skilled migrants to enhance their competitive advantage in a globalizing economy. This phenomenon has been described by Ayelet Shachar as a "race for talent." Global Trend 3: The Use of Temporary Workers Citizenship status is typically not granted to temporary migrants, even though temporary and circular migration is a significant aspect of international migration. This trend saw a notable increase between 2016 and 2017. In Canada, the number of temporary foreign workers has occasionally surpassed the number of individuals admitted as immigrants and refugees, with this occurring in both 2010 and 2011. Global Trend 4: Immigration Restrictions on Family Migration  In recent years, many countries have introduced policies to restrict family migration, including higher income requirements for sponsors, stricter language requirements, and measures to prevent "marriages of convenience." Countries such as Norway, Canada, Korea, the Netherlands, and Ireland have implemented these restrictions. However, under Canada's Trudeau government, efforts were made to ease family migration, including raising the dependent age limit and facilitating the arrival of grandparents in 2019. Despite some flexibility in family migration policies, there remains a strong emphasis on prioritizing economic (skilled) migration. Global Trend 5: The Criminalization of Immigrants under Neoliberalism Neoliberalism promotes market openness but clashes with immigration criminalization, which views immigrants as threats. This leads to policies like border control, detention, and deportation. Immigration and security policies in the West have fueled anti-immigrant attitudes, as seen in Donald Trump’s 2015 campaign. Governments are caught between securing borders and maintaining global flows essential for economic stability. Immigrants are increasingly associated with crime, feeding populist xenophobia. Despite this, highly skilled immigrants remain valued, with a shift toward selective policies that prioritize entrepreneurship and self-sufficiency. 3. Canada’s Immigration History Evolution of immigration policy in Canada: Immigration categories: Economic Immigrants: Point System, weight of points depends on needs of economy. Includes skilled workers, business class, investors, New Canadian experience class, Provincial Nominee Programs. Family Class: Immediate family members of Canadian citizens and permanent residents. Refugee and Humanitarian Class: Government-sponsored refugees, privately-sponsored refugees; mixed visas; refugee claimants awaiting decision, other humanitarian Considerations. Temporary Migrants: Students, guest workers, temporary labour (skilled and unskilled). Points system: The Point System for economic class immigration in Canada evaluates applicants based on several key factors: 1. Core Factors: Points are awarded for age, education, language proficiency (English and/or French), and relevant work experience. 2. Additional Factors: Applicants can earn extra points for having a valid job offer, previous study or work experience in Canada, and adaptability factors such as family connections in Canada. 3. Maximum Points: A total of 100 points can be scored, with a minimum passing score typically set at 67 points. 4. Application Process: Candidates submit an Express Entry profile and are ranked against others in the pool, with invitations to apply (ITAs) given to the highest-scoring applicants. This system aims to select skilled immigrants who can contribute effectively to Canada's economy and society. ONLY APPLIES TO THIS TYPE OF IMMIGRATION Racism and discrimination in Canada’s immigration policies: 1911: Order-in-Council P.C. 1324 Adopted on August 12, 1911, this order prohibited the landing of any immigrants belonging to the "Negro race," deemed unsuitable for Canada's climate and requirements. Signed by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, it was not officially legislated and was cancelled on October 5, 1911. 1914: SS Komagata Maru Incident Almost 400 East Indians aboard the SS Komagata Maru were denied entry and forced to languish in Vancouver Harbour. Canadian authorities eventually escorted the ship out of Canadian waters, reflecting discriminatory immigration practices. 1915-1945: Ongoing Discrimination Canada maintained a policy favoring British and American immigrants while largely rejecting Jewish refugees during WWII. Prime Minister Mackenzie King turned away the St. Louis ship, resulting in many deaths at the hands of the Nazis. The King government enacted the Chinese Immigration Act in 1923, banning all Chinese immigration, which was not rescinded until 1947. King expressed concerns that immigration from Asia would alter Canada's demographic makeup. Over 21,000 Japanese Canadians were dispossessed during WWII, further illustrating systemic racism. Post-1945: Changes in Immigration Policy  The 1952 Immigration Act established specific prohibitions against individuals classified as "idiots, imbeciles, or diseased," and included restrictions against homosexuals. The end of WWII marked a shift towards a universal selection system, culminating in the adoption of the points system in 1967. Case study: Immigration and Black history: 1911: Order-in-Council P.C. 1324 Adopted on August 12, 1911, this order prohibited the landing of any immigrants belonging to the "Negro race," deemed unsuitable for Canada's climate and requirements. Signed by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, it was not officially legislated and was cancelled on October 5, 1911. Africville Location: Africville was a historic Black community in Halifax, Nova Scotia, founded in the early 19th century by formerly enslaved individuals and free Black people. Historical Context Community Development: Africville thrived with churches, schools, and businesses despite facing systemic racism and economic challenges. Discrimination: Residents often faced low-paying jobs and limited opportunities due to racial discrimination. Displacement Urban Renewal: In the 1960s, Halifax's urban renewal program targeted Africville, deeming it "unsanitary." Forced Relocation: Residents were forcibly moved, with homes demolished and inadequate compensation. Key Themes Racism and Resilience: Africville's history reflects systemic barriers and the community's strength. Cultural Memory: The legacy of Africville emphasizes the importance of remembering and recognizing historical injustices. 1910, 1976, 2002 immigration acts: Key Points of the 1910 Immigration Act: Prohibitory Powers: The Act empowered the Governor in Council to prohibit the landing of immigrants deemed unsuitable for Canada. Racial Exclusions: Immigrants could be barred based on race, reflecting discriminatory attitudes of the time that categorized certain races as incompatible with Canadian climate or societal needs. Class and Occupation Restrictions: The legislation allowed for the exclusion of specific classes, occupations, or character types, effectively enabling selective immigration policies. Impact on Immigration Policy: This Act laid the groundwork for future immigration restrictions, contributing to a legacy of racial and ethnic discrimination in Canadian immigration practices. 1976 Immigration Act Key Points: Established immigration agreements with provinces and required an immigration plan. Focused on education, labor market experience, and introduced the business immigrant program. Allowed admissions based on humanitarian grounds. Created a unique private sponsorship program for refugees. Key Points of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act of 2002: Replaced the 1976 Immigration Act. Increased focus on security and human capital. Insufficient recognition of immigrant skills and credentials in the labor market. Declining employment success for immigrant cohorts. Health care cuts for immigrants, later overruled by the Supreme Court. Introduced the "safe country" or designated country of origin policy. Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism Declaration (1971): Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau declared Canada a multicultural nation within a bilingual framework. A Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963) emphasized prioritizing support for ethnic groups within the context of Canada's two official languages. This was officially codified in the 1982 Charter of Rights and Freedoms and enshrined in the 1988 Multicultural Act. 1976 Immigration Act:  Introduced immigration agreements with provinces and required an immigration plan. Increased emphasis on education and labor market experience. Established a business immigrant program, granting additional points to financially self-sufficient immigrants who could create jobs. Included admissions based on humanitarian grounds. Introduced a private sponsorship program for refugees, unique globally. Differences in immigration policies Harper Conservatives Trudeau Liberals: Harper Conservatives (2002) Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (2002): Replaced the 1976 legislation. Security Focus: Increased emphasis on security measures. Human Capital: Greater focus on human capital; however, immigrant skills and credentials were often inadequately recognized in the labor market. Employment Decline: Notable decline in employment success among successive immigrant cohorts. Healthcare Cuts: Health care was cut, leading to provincial takeover and subsequent Supreme Court overruling. Safe Country Designation: Introduced the concept of safe countries/designated countries of origin. Trudeau Liberals Humanitarian Admissions: Increased admissions of refugees, protected persons, and others to 51,000–57,000. CIC to IRCC: The Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC) was renamed to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC). End of Safe Country Designation: The policy of safe countries of origin was discontinued. Family Class: Initially put on hold but reinstated in 2022. Reversal of Harper Era Reforms: Many policies from the Harper era were reversed. Higher Immigration Targets: Set higher targets for immigration. Safe Third Country Agreement: Renegotiated the agreement with the U.S. regarding asylum seekers. 4. International Refugee Law UNHCR definition of Refugee: Refugees are people who have fled war, violence, conflict or persecution and have crossed an international border to find safety in another country. Definition of Asylum seeker: A person who has crossed an international border in search of protection under the 1951 Convention but whose claim for refugee status has not yet been determined (sometimes interchanged with refugee claimant) Definition of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): displaced within national borders. Some of the most vulnerable people in the world because there is no binding international treaty that protects IDPs Definition of Irregular migrant: An irregular migrant is an individual who migrates to a country without the necessary legal documentation or authorization. This can include people who enter a country without proper visas, those who overstay their visas, or those who use fraudulent documents. Irregular migration often occurs for various reasons, including seeking better economic opportunities, escaping conflict or persecution, or reuniting with family Role of UNHCR: The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) documents refugees and organizes refugee camps and resettlement, reports on conditions faced by refugees and advocates for the recognition of refugee rights and it provides services to refugees. Durable Solutions: Return to Country of Origin: The ideal solution is repatriation when conditions in the home country have materially improved, allowing for safe and dignified return. Local Integration: The next best option is local integration in the country of first asylum, ideally where refugees share language, climate, and economic opportunities. Resettlement: The least common solution is resettlement to a third country, such as Canada, which is often necessary when the other two options are unavailable. International (UN) and Regional Refugee Conventions (The Cartagena Declaration on refugees (1984): Context: The Cartagena Declaration was established in response to the growing refugee crisis in Latin America during the 1980s. Key Principles: ○ Expands the definition of refugees beyond the 1951 UN Convention, including those fleeing violence, human rights violations, and generalized violence. ○ Emphasizes the importance of regional solidarity and cooperation in addressing refugee needs. Protection and Rights: Calls for the protection of refugees' rights and their integration into host societies, ensuring their access to essential services and support.  Non-Refoulement: Reinforces the principle of non-refoulement, preventing the return of refugees to countries where they face threats to their life or freedom. Significance Broader Definition: Recognized the need for a more inclusive approach to refugee protection in the Latin American context. Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (1969)): Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (1969) Context: Adopted in response to the unique refugee situations in Africa, particularly due to conflicts and decolonization. Key Principles: ○ Expands the definition of refugees to include individuals fleeing external aggression, foreign domination, or events seriously disturbing public order. ○ Emphasizes the right to asylum and the importance of regional cooperation among African states in addressing refugee issues. Protection and Rights: Encourages the integration of refugees into host communities and calls for their rights, including access to education, employment, and social services. Non-Refoulement: Reinforces the principle of non-refoulement, protecting refugees from being returned to places where their lives or freedoms are threatened. Significance Regional Focus: Tailored to the specific challenges faced by African countries, setting a regional framework for refugee protection that complements international law. Definitions and concepts found in 1951 UN Refugee Convention (note the 1951 Refugee Convention: 1. Refugee Definition: ○ A refugee is someone outside their country of origin with a well-founded fear of persecution due to race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political opinion. 2. Non-Refoulement: ○ Prohibits returning refugees to places where their lives or freedoms are at risk. 3. Asylum: ○ Recognizes the right to seek asylum and outlines host state obligations. 4. Durable Solutions: ○ Encourages local integration, resettlement, and voluntary repatriation for refugees.  5. International Cooperation: ○ Stresses the need for states to collaborate on refugee protection and assistance. Importance The Convention is a foundational legal framework guiding refugee protection globally. goes by the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, and also the 1951 Geneva Convention): Key Concepts of the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 1. Refugee Definition: ○ A refugee is an individual outside their country of nationality with a well-founded fear of persecution due to race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. 2. Non-Refoulement: ○ This principle prohibits countries from returning refugees to territories where their life or freedom may be threatened. 3. Right to Asylum: ○ The Convention acknowledges the right of individuals to seek asylum in other countries. 4. Durable Solutions: ○ Emphasizes three main solutions for refugees: local integration, resettlement in a third country, and voluntary repatriation when safe. 5. International Cooperation: ○ Encourages collaboration among states to ensure the protection and assistance of refugees. Significance The 1951 Geneva Convention serves as a key international legal framework for refugee rights and protection, shaping global policies and practices. Historical Context Developed post-World War II to address the plight of millions displaced by conflict and persecution, it aimed to standardize legal protections for refugees. Key Provisions Rights of Refugees: Includes the right to work, education, access to social services, and freedom of movement.  Legal Obligations of States: Countries must cooperate with the UNHCR and implement measures to protect refugees. Global Impact Ratified by over 140 countries, it has significantly influenced international and national laws regarding refugee protection. Limitations and Amendments The 1967 Protocol removed earlier geographical and temporal restrictions, allowing the Convention’s principles to apply universally. Conclusion The 1951 Geneva Convention remains a critical instrument for safeguarding refugee rights and influencing responses to refugee crises globally. Specific articles of the 1951 Refugee Convention: A. Inclusion Provisions Official Definition of Refugee: ○ A refugee is defined as someone who has a well-founded fear of persecution due to race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. This person is outside their country of nationality and is either unable or unwilling to seek protection from that country. If stateless, the individual is outside their former habitual residence due to such fear. 1. Alienage: Concerns the status of being an outsider or foreigner. 2. Well-Founded Fear: Refers to the necessity of having a justified apprehension of persecution. 3. Risk of Persecution: Addresses the likelihood of facing harm due to the aforementioned reasons. 4. Grounds of Persecution: Specifies the reasons that qualify for refugee status. C. Cessation Provisions A refugee status may cease if: 1. The individual voluntarily seeks protection from their country of nationality. 2. They voluntarily reacquire lost nationality. 3. They gain a new nationality and enjoy protection from that country. 4. They voluntarily return to their country of origin. 5. The circumstances causing their fear of persecution no longer exist. D. Exclusion Provisions  The Convention does not apply to individuals with serious reasons for considering that they: 1. Have committed a crime against peace, a war crime, or a crime against humanity. 2. Have committed a serious non-political crime outside the country of refuge before admission. 3. Have acted contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. This summary outlines the essential aspects of refugee inclusion, cessation, and exclusion as defined by the Refugee Convention. Non-Refoulement: 1. Varying Protection: While the refugee definition applies universally, the level of protection afforded to refugees can vary significantly based on where they claim their status, ranging from citizenship to life in crowded camps. 2. Obligation Under the Refugee Convention: The Refugee Convention mandates that state parties cannot return refugees to countries where they face threats to their safety (non-refoulement). 3. Compliance Issues: Although states are expected to grant refugee status and potentially citizenship, many countries, often overwhelmed by incoming refugees, either do not adhere to the Convention or have not ratified it, thus failing to meet their obligations. Customary Law: Definition: Customary law consists of legal norms that develop over time through consistent practices accepted by states as binding. It is a key source of international law, alongside treaties. Responsibility “burden Sharing”: Definition: Burden sharing refers to the concept of distributing the responsibilities and resources needed to support and protect refugees among different countries, organizations, and communities. Mandates, and programs that follow the UNHCR designated classification of refugees: UNHCR Mandates and Programs for Refugee Classification The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has key mandates and programs to protect and assist refugees: Mandates  Protection: Ensures refugees' rights are respected and promotes non-refoulement, preventing their return to danger. Assistance: Provides essential services like shelter, food, healthcare, and education to refugees. Durable Solutions: Aims for: ○ Voluntary Repatriation: Helping refugees return home safely. ○ Local Integration: Supporting refugees in integrating into host communities. ○ Resettlement: Facilitating the transfer of refugees to third countries. Programs Refugee Status Determination (RSD): Assesses individual claims for refugee status. Emergency Response: Mobilizes assistance during crises. Global Compact on Refugees: Promotes international cooperation and equitable responsibility-sharing among host countries. Partnerships: Collaborates with NGOs and local authorities for effective support. Capacity-Building: Strengthens host countries' abilities to manage refugee situations 5. Canada’s Obligations to Refugees Government-Assisted and Private-Sponsored Refugees: Government-Assisted Refugees (GAR) Program:The Government-Assisted Refugees (GAR) Program allows refugees referred to Canada for resettlement by the UNHCR or other organizations, without direct applications from individuals. Key points include: Identification: Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) officials abroad identify individuals in need of help who can successfully integrate into Canada, typically requiring a UNHCR referral. Annual Intake: Canada receives approximately 8,000 GARs each year. Support: Initial resettlement is fully supported by the Canadian government or the province of Quebec, through non-governmental service provider organizations funded by IRCC. Duration of Support: GARs receive support for up to one year from their arrival or until they can support themselves, whichever comes first. Summary of the Private Sponsorship Program INTRODUCTION OF PRIVATE SPONSORSHIP PROGRAM By mid-1979, 1.5 million refugees had fled Southeast Asia. Canada planned to resettle 60,000 Indochinese refugees by the end of 1980, spurred by volunteer efforts from Canadians. Refugees accounted for 25% of all immigrants to Canada from 1978-81. PRIVATE SPONSORSHIP CONT’ The 1976 Immigration Act introduced private sponsorship of refugees (PSR) alongside government-assisted refugees (GARs). Sponsorship can occur through a "Group of Five" or organizations with "master agreements," limiting government involvement. The program structure has remained stable, with nearly 100 Sponsorship Agreement Holders (SAHs) by 2016. PRIVATE SPONSORSHIP CONT’ The program complements government efforts and aims for “additionality” in resettling refugees. Both sponsors and the government depend on each other for humanitarian goals. Problem: Additionality can lead to over-reliance and dependence. Kyriakides video: “Persons of Self Rescue” and need to communicate with privately sponsored refugees throughout process: In the video featuring Christopher Kyriakides, he discusses "self-rescue" among refugees and the importance of communication with privately sponsored refugees during the resettlement process. Here are the key points: 1. Self-Rescue Concept: Many refugees actively engage in self-rescue efforts, seeking safety and stability for themselves and their families. 2. Role of Communication: Effective communication is crucial for helping privately sponsored refugees navigate the complexities of resettlement, including understanding their rights and available resources. 3. Community Engagement: Involving local communities in the support process fosters understanding and acceptance, providing a vital support network for refugees. 4. Challenges Faced: Kyriakides acknowledges the legal obstacles, cultural barriers, and psychological toll that refugees encounter during their journeys. 5. Importance of Support Systems: Building robust support systems through communication and community engagement can significantly improve the resettlement experience for refugees. Inland refugee claims: Inland Refugee Claims Inland refugee claims are how people who are already in a country ask for refugee status. Here’s a simple breakdown: Definition  An inland refugee claim is when someone asks for protection because they are afraid of persecution or serious harm in their home country, and they are currently in the host country Laws and processes followed: Process 1. Application Submission: Individuals submit a refugee claim to the appropriate immigration authority (e.g., in Canada, this is done through the Immigration and Refugee Board). 2. Eligibility Assessment: The claim is assessed to determine if the individual meets the definition of a refugee according to the country's laws. 3. Hearing: If the claim is deemed eligible, a hearing is scheduled where the claimant can present their case and provide evidence. 4. Decision: The immigration authority issues a decision on the claim. If approved, the individual may receive protected status or a residence permit; if denied, they may have options to appeal or may face removal. Key Considerations Legal Representation: Claimants often benefit from legal assistance to navigate the complexities of the refugee process. Documentation: Claimants are encouraged to provide documentation that supports their fear of persecution, such as personal testimonies, medical records, or country condition reports. Support Services: Many countries provide services to assist refugees with housing, healthcare, and employment during the claim process. Role of IRB: The IRB is responsible for assessing their refugee status and determining whether they qualify for protection under Canadian law. This process involves a hearing where claimants present their cases, and the IRB evaluates their claims based on the risks they face in their home country. Irregular border crossings: Irregular border crossers are individuals who enter Canada outside of official ports of entry. Similar to other refugee claimants, they are referred to the Immigration and Refugee Board's Refugee Protection Division (RPD) after the Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) or the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) assesses their eligibility for refugee protection. The Safe Third Country Agreement:  - has increased irregular border crossings between the US and Canada. The Safe Third Country Agreement requires refugee claimants to seek protection in the first safe country they arrive in, with certain exceptions. Signed on December 5, 2002, and effective December 29, 2004, the Agreement aims to manage access to the refugee system at the Canada-U.S. land border, with the U.S. designated as the only safe third country by Canada. Key points include: Scope: Applies to refugees entering Canada from the U.S. at land border crossings, by train, or at airports if they have been refused refugee status in the U.S. Exceptions: There are four types of exceptions to the Agreement: ○ Family member exceptions ○ Unaccompanied minors exception ○ Document holder exceptions ○ Public interest exceptions 6.Extra information Downward Assimilation Over time, crime patterns among second-generation immigrants begin to resemble those of the native-born population. This is particularly true for descendants of lower-skilled migrants, a process known as "downward assimilation." Min Zhou and Alejandro Portes describe this phenomenon alongside "segmented assimilation." While children of immigrants will inevitably assimilate, the key question is which segment of society they will assimilate into—potentially shaping their social and economic outcomes. Why Migration Policies Fail 1. Chain Migration and Networks: Established migrant networks encourage further migration, making it hard to control flow through policies. 2. Role of Family and Community: Families and communities play a crucial role in supporting and influencing migration decisions. 3. Position within the Life Cycle: People at different life stages may migrate for varied reasons, which policies often overlook. 4. Migration Industry: An established migration industry can complicate and undermine policy effectiveness by facilitating movement. 5. Policies as Opportunity Structures: Policies may inadvertently create opportunities for migration rather than limit it.  6. Migrant Agency: Migrants have their own agency and make choices that can defy policies. 7. Structural Dependence on Emigration: Economies reliant on remittances and emigration may resist policies aimed at limiting migration. 8. North-South Divide: Economic disparities between the Global North and South drive migration, making policies difficult to enforce Racial Profiling Black youth are 10 times more likely to be involved in the criminal justice system than white youth. Racial profiling and bias from police, victims, and witnesses contribute to this overrepresentation. Immigrants and minorities face higher arrest rates, harsher charges, and tougher punishments. Minority crime victims often receive less police protection, and undocumented migrants fear reporting crimes due to deportation risks. Non-white minorities are more likely to experience police violence. Responsibilities of States: Key Gaps 1. Enforcement: There is no international system to enforce refugee rights, leaving individuals dependent on national governments for recognition and protection. 2. Territorial Limitations: The refugee protection regime does not require countries to protect refugees outside their borders, leading some nations to deter refugees from entering to avoid obligations. 3. Responsibility Sharing: The Refugee Convention acknowledges the uneven distribution of asylum responsibilities but lacks clear guidance on how countries should cooperate and share the burden, often resulting in inadequate support from wealthier nations for those hosting large refugee populations. Hosting Refugees: Key Points Refugee Camps: Designated areas where refugees are protected, usually separated from local citizens. These camps are primarily managed by the UNHCR, alongside NGOs and national governments. However, they are not considered a sustainable long-term solution. Protracted Situations: Approximately two-thirds of the world's refugees live in long-term exile, often for two to three decades. Many have raised children in these camps who only know life there. Self-Settlement: Some refugees choose to live in rural or urban areas, integrating with the local population rather than staying in camps. Cartagena Declaration: Key Points Expanded Definition: The Cartagena Declaration broadens the definition of refugees to include individuals fleeing due to generalized violence, foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive human rights violations, or severe disturbances to public order.  Respect and Incorporation: While not a treaty, its provisions are honored in Central America and have been integrated into some national laws. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): These individuals are displaced within their own country and are highly vulnerable, as there is no binding international treaty protecting them. Stateless Persons: Individuals not recognized as citizens of any state. Statelessness can arise from discrimination, gaps in international law, or territorial changes.