How Psychologists Conduct Research PDF

Chapter 2: How Psychologists Conduct Research Overview How Many People Go To Therapy? Multicultural Psychology How Do We Research Abnormal Psychology Research Methods & Design (Strengths & Weaknesses) Protecting Human Participants Subject Selection & The Models of Abnormality Matr...

Chapter 2: How Psychologists Conduct Research Overview How Many People Go To Therapy? Multicultural Psychology How Do We Research Abnormal Psychology Research Methods & Design (Strengths & Weaknesses) Protecting Human Participants Subject Selection & The Models of Abnormality Matrix Whatʼs Next? How many people go to therapy in the US?  Around 43% of people with psychological disorders in the United States receive treatment in the course of a year (AHA, 2019b; NIMH, 2019). At least 20% of clients enter therapy because of milder problems in living — problems with marital, family, job, peer, school, or community relationships (APA, 2019b). The National Institute of Mental Health (2024) states: 59.3 million people live with mental illness in the US (23.1%). Mental illnesses includes many conditions that vary in range of severity (mild to severe) The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) categorizes mental illness into two broad categories – any mental illness (AMI) and serious mental illness (SMI) ○ AMI, mental, behavioral or emotional disorder; varies in impact, ranges from no impairment to severe ○ SMI, mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder resulting in serious functional impairment that substantially interferes with or limits on or more major life activities. May experience disability due to SMI The National Survey In 2022, 15.4 million adults had a on Drug Use and serious mental illness; 10.2 million received mental health treatment in Health (2023) the past year (66.7%) More females (7%) received mental health treatment for SMIs when compared to males (4.8%) Young adults (18-25) with SMI (61.4%) received treatment less than adults aged 26-49 (67.4%) and 50 and older (71%) Growing Emphasis on Preventing Disorders and Promoting Mental Health Prevention approach strategies ○ Correction of social conditions ○ Help individuals at risk for developing emotional problems ○ Utilizes positive psychology to teach coping skills Multicultural Psychology Members of U.S. racial and ethnic minority groups collectively make up 40 percent of population. ○ Minority groups are expected to grow to 52% of the population by 2055 (WPR, 2019). Age structure, birth rates, immigration Multicultural psychologists research… ○ How culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar factors affect behavior and thought ○ How people of different cultures, races, and genders may differ psychologically Multicultural Psychology Members of U.S. racial and ethnic minority groups collectively make up 40 percent of population. ○ Minority groups are expected to grow to 52% of the population by 2055 (WPR, 2019). Age structure, birth rates, immigration Multicultural psychologists research… ○ How culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar factors affect behavior and thought ○ How people of different cultures, races, and genders may differ psychologically The Increasing Influence of Insurance Coverage Managed care program is dominant form of insurance coverage in U.S. Sixty-seven percent of all privately insured persons in the US are enrolled in managed care programs. Key Care Issues The insurance company determines key care issues. Reimbursements for mental disorders tend to be lower than those for medical disorders; often shortened, less effective therapy (Comer & Comer, 2021) Key care issues: Which therapists its clients may choose The cost of sessions The number of session for which a client may be reimbursed What Are Today's Leading Theories and Professions? Numerous theoretical perspectives ○ Psychoanalytic ○ Biological ○ Cognitive-behavioral ○ Humanistic-existential ○ Sociocultural ○ Developmental psychopathology No single perspective dominates the clinical field What Are Today’s Leading Theories and Professions? A variety of professionals offer help to people with psychological problems. Degree Began to Current Average Percent Practice Number Annual Salary Female Psychiatrists MD, DO 1840s 26,000 $220,000 44% Psychologists PhD, PsyD, EdD Late 1940s 182,000 $79,000 74% Social Workers MSW, DSW Early 1950s 707,000 $49,000 83% Counselors Various Early 1950s 424,000 $45,000 74% Technology and Mental Health New triggers and vehicles for expression of abnormal behavior Multitude of digital distractions Increased use of tele-mental health services and mental health apps Enormous volume of Web-based misinformation The Digital Explosion How Do We Research Abnormal Psychology? Research in Abnormal Psychology Research is the systematic search for facts through the use of careful observations and investigations. ○ Inaccuracy in the field of abnormal psychology can cause great suffering. What Do Clinical Researchers Do? Clinical researchers (clinical scientists) ○ Discover universal laws and principles ○ Search for nomothetic understanding (to make general predictions about the population by examining interindividual variation between or across people) ○ Do not typically assess, diagnose, or treat individual clients ○ Rely on the scientific method Psychwatch Animals Have Rights Animal subjects Between 11 and 25 million animals used in studies in the U.S. each year. Research methods: animals are shocked, starved, separated from parents, surgically altered, killed Outcomes Helped increase human life expectancy by 24 years Contributed to development of medications and patient savings With his body painted as a monkey, an activist from the The question: Are these actions ethically organization PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) sits in a cage to protest the use of animals in acceptable? research at a medical science institute in India. What Do Clinical Researchers Do? (part 2) Clinical researchers depend on three methods of investigation ○ Case study ○ Correlational method ○ Experimental method The Case Study (Case Examples) How are case studies helpful? ○ Detailed, interpretative description of a person's life and psychological problems ○ Source of new ideas about behavior and discoveries ○ Tentative support for a theory; challenge for a theoryʼs assumptions ○ Introduction of new therapeutic techniques ○ Opportunities to study unusual problems ○ https://www.apa.org/depression-guideline/case-examples The Case Study (part 2) What are the limitations of case studies? ○ Biased observers ○ Subjective evidence (low internal validity) ○ Little basis for generalization (low A 39-year follow up of the Genain external validity) Quadruplets Correlational vs. Experimental Methods The Correlational Method and the Experimental Method General characteristics of correlational and experimental research methods Typically involve observing many individuals. Researchers apply procedures uniformly. Studies can be replicated. Researchers use statistical tests to analyze results. The Correlational Method Correlation ○ Degree to which events or characteristics vary with each other Correlational method ○ Research procedure used to determine how much events or characteristics vary along with each other The Correlational Method Subjects or participants ○ People chosen for study are collectively called a sample ○ Sample must be representative of the larger population Tufts Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging https://hnrca.tufts.edu/research-studies/current-research-studies Describing a Correlation Correlational data can be graphed and a line of best fit can be drawn. ○ Positive correlation (slope is upward and to the right): Variables change in the same direction ○ Negative correlation (downward slope): Variables change in the opposite direction ○ Unrelated (no slope): No consistent relationship Describing a Correlation Positive correlation: The relationship between the amount of recent stress and feelings of depression shown by this hypothetical sample of 10 participants is a near-perfect “positive” correlation. Negative correlation: The relationship between the number of activities and the feelings of depression shown by this hypothetical sample is a near-perfect “negative” correlation. Describing a Correlation (part 3) The magnitude (strength) of a correlation is important. ○ High or strong magnitude: Variables vary closely together; fall close to the line of best fit. ○ Weaker magnitude: Variables do not vary as closely together; loosely scattered around the line of best fit. Describing a Correlation Direction and magnitude of a correlation are often calculated numerically. ○ The correlation coefficient, symbolized by the letter r ○ Can vary from +1.00 (perfect positive correlation) to –1.00 (perfect negative correlation) Sign (+ or –) indicates direction Number indicates magnitude 0.00: No consistent relationship When Can Correlations Be Trusted? Correlations can be trusted based on a statistical analysis of probability. ○ Statistical significance: The finding is unlikely to have occurred by chance. Less than a 5 percent probability that findings are due to chance (p <.05) are considered statistically significant. Generally, confidence increases with the size of the sample and the magnitude of the correlation. What Are the Merits of the Correlational Method? Advantages of the correlational method ○ Has high external validity (can generalize findings) ○ Can repeat (replicate) studies with other samples Difficulties with correlational studies ○ Lack internal validity ○ Describe but do not explain a relationship or causation ○ How accurate is your correlation? The Experimental Method The Experimental Method Experiment ○ The variable is manipulated to determine whether it has an effect on another variable. ○ The manipulation's effect on another variable is observed Manipulated variable = independent variable Variable being observed = dependent variable The Experimental Method (part 2) Confound Variables other than the independent variable that may also be affecting the dependent variable. Three features to guard against confounds Control group Random assignment Masked (blind) design Random Assignment Random assignment ○ Any selection procedure that ensures that every participant in the experiment is as likely to be placed in one group as another. Masked (blind) design ○ Experiment in which participants do not know which assigned group they are in. Placebo therapy Double-masked design ○ Experiment in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of the groups to which participants are assigned The Control Group Control group ○ Research participants who are not exposed to the independent variable, but whose experience is similar to that of the experimental group. ○ Rules of statistical significance are applied. ○ Clinicians may also evaluate clinical significance. Alternative Research Designs (part 1) Clinical researchers often must settle for designs that are less than ideal and include quasi-experimental designs. ○ Matched designs ○ Natural experiments ○ Analogue experiments ○ Single-subject experiments ○ Longitudinal studies ○ Epidemiological studies Alternative Research Designs (part 2) Matched (mixed) designs ○ Participants are not randomly assign to groups, but rather placed in existing groups. Child-abuse researchers use to minimize confound problems ○ Matched control groups are used to address confounds based on demographic and other variables. Alternative Research Designs (part 3) Natural experiments ○ Nature manipulates the independent variable and the experimenter observes the effects. ○ Events cannot be replicated at will. ○ Broad generalizations cannot be drawn from a single study. Alternative Research Designs (part 4) Analogue experiments ○ Independent variables are freely manipulated while ethical and practical limitations are avoided. ○ Laboratory subjects are induced to behave in ways that resemble real life. ○ Experimenters cannot be certain that phenomena observed in the lab are the same as the psychological disorders Seven-year-old chimpanzee Rudi and his trainer get ready to play a round of golf. being investigated. ○ Animals are often used as participants. Alternative Research Designs (part 5) Single-subject (single-case) experiment ○ A single participant is observed before and after manipulation of the independent variable. ○ Experiments rely on baseline data to set a standard for comparison. ○ This design has higher internal validity than the case study because the independent variable is manipulated. ABAB (reversal) design Alternative Research Designs (part 6) Longitudinal studies (high-risk or developmental studies) ○ The same individuals are observed on many occasions over a long period. ○ Independent variable manipulation or random assignment of participants to conditions is not possible. ○ Causes cannot be pinpointed. ○ Ex. The New England Centenarian Study ○ National National Institute on Aging Gerontology Branch of the Intramural Program https://www.nia.nih.gov/research/labs/tgb/longitudinal-studies-section Life Is a Longitudinal Study How do these photos of the same individuals at different points in their lives underscore the logic behind longitudinal studies? These similarly posed photos of the same individuals at different points in their lives underscore the logic behind longitudinal studies. Just as the individuals’ eyes, noses, and smiles in childhood predict similar facial features in adulthood, so too might a person’s early temperament, sociability, or other psychological features sometimes predict adult characteristics or difficulties. Alternative Research Designs Epidemiological studies ○ Reveal the incidence and prevalence of a disorder in a particular population Incidence: Number of new cases that emerge in a given period Prevalence: Total number of cases in a given period ○ Studies Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study (Cottler et al.) National Comorbidity Survey National Comorbidity Survey Replication National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions Relative Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods Provides Provides General Provides Causal Statistical Replicable Individual Information Information Analysis Information Possible Case Study Yes No No No No Correlational No Yes No Yes Yes Method Experimental No Yes Yes Yes Yes Method The Use and Abuse of Social Media There has been an increased use of social networks for research studies. Contributions ○ Access to large data bases Concerns ○ Data sometimes examined without subscriber consent ○ Direct and secret manipulation of social media by researchers without informed consent; potential for affecting clinical depression in some studies; psychological targeting What advice would you give to researchers on the proper use of social-media sourced data? Protecting Human Participants (part 1) Researchersʼ primary obligation ○ Avoid physical or psychological harm for human participants. Institutional Review Board (IRB) ○ Ethics committee in a research facility empowered to protect the rights and safety of human research participants. Protecting Human Participants (part 2) IRBs try to ensure that each study grants the following rights to participants: ○ The participants enlist voluntarily. ○ Before enlisting, the participants are adequately informed about what the study entails (“informed consent”). ○ The participants can end their participation in the study at any time. Frequently Asked Questions about IRB’s https://www.apa.org/advocacy/research/defending-research/review-boards Protecting Human Participants (part 3) IRBs try to endure that each study grants the following rights to participants: (cont.) ○ The benefits of the study outweigh its costs/risks. ○ The participants are protected from physical and psychological harm. ○ The participants have access to information about the study. ○ The participantsʼ privacy is protected by principles such as confidentiality or anonymity. Forming a Hypothesis Science Presentation Your Subject Selection & Models of Abnormality Matrix 51 Subject Selection | Your Research Subject selection for your final paper is due next Sunday. Here are some things to remember as you select your topic. Be specific with your topic- the chapter title is too broad (i.e. Models of Abnormality, Trauma and Stress Disorders); select a specific disorder or topic within the chapter - Current treatments for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder; Schizophrenia, Suicide Among Adolescents Briefly research your topic so that you know it fits the three subtopics Choose a topic you are interested in (maybe even passionate about; Capstone-if it applies, use the same topic/research) a. Outline b. Rough Draft c. Final Paper Questions, Comments, What’s Next Models of Abnormality next week – Chapter 3 Models of Abnormality Matrix due next Sunday - January 19 Subject Selection is also due next Sunday, January 19 See you next week!