HM&L Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

HM&L EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE Intro to Memory & learning 1.​ What was Hermann Ebbinghaus's contribution to the study of memory, and what innovative method did he use? -​ Ebbinghaus developed the first scientific methods for studying memory -​ He invented the nons...

HM&L EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE Intro to Memory & learning 1.​ What was Hermann Ebbinghaus's contribution to the study of memory, and what innovative method did he use? -​ Ebbinghaus developed the first scientific methods for studying memory -​ He invented the nonsense syllable (random letter sequences) to measure “pure memory,” eliminating prior knowledge interference -​ “Ebbinghaus Needed Nonsense to Forget Fast” 2.​ Explain the concept of the forgetting curve and its significance in memory research. -​ The forgetting curve show how memory retention declines over time -​ It highlights rapid initial forgetting by a slower decline, emphasizing the importance of reinforcement and repetition in learning 3.​ Compare and contrast the single-trace theory and the dual-trace theory in explaining Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve. -​ Single trace theory: memory strength declines gradually over time -​ Dual-trace theory: there are two memory traces - a short-term trace that fades quickly and a long term trace that decays more slowly -​ “Single Slips, Dual Divides” 4.​ What is Ribot's Law, and how does it relate to the understanding of memory loss? -​ Proposed by Theodule Ribot, stating older memories are more resistant to brain damage than newer ones -​ This explains why individuals with brain disorders often forget recent events first -​ “Ribot Remembers the Old First” 5.​ Describe Korsakoff's Syndrome, including its characteristic symptoms and proposed causes.  -​ Described by Serge Korsakoff, caused by thiamine (vitamin b1) deficiency often due to chronic alcoholism -​ Symptoms include: 1.​ Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories 2.​ Retrograde amnesia: loss of past memories 3.​ Confabulation: filing memory gaps with false information -​ Mnemonic: “Korsakoff’s CRAZY Memory Loss” -​ Chronic Alcoholism → Retrograde Amnesia → Anterograde Amnesia → Zero Vitamin B1 → Yarn (confabulation). 6.​ How did William James conceptualize the stages of memory formation and decay? -​ After-imade: immediate sensory memory that fades quickly -​ Primary memory: short-term retention of information -​ Secondary memory; long-term storage that requires cues for retrieval 7.​ What is the Neuron Doctrine, and who proposed it? -​ The brain consists of individual nerve cells (neurons), each separated by a membrane -​ Opposed the reticulum theory, which suggested that neurons were physically connected. -​ “Neurons are Neat & Not Networked” 8.​ Explain the Synaptic Plasticity Hypothesis and its significance in understanding learning and memory. -​ Proposed by Cajal, stating that synaptic connections strengthen with experience. -​ This is the foundation of learning and memory formation. 9.​ Describe the experiment conducted by Rosenzweig and Bennet, and explain how it supports the Synaptic Plasticity Hypothesis. -​ Showed that enriched environments lead to increased synaptic connections in the brain.  -​ Supports the Synaptic Plasticity Hypothesis by demonstrating that experience changes brain structure. -​ “Rats in Rich Rooms Remember More” 10.​What is classical conditioning, and how did Ivan Pavlov contribute to its understanding? -​ Pavlov discovered associative learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food). -​ This caused a conditioned response (salivation) when only the bell was presented. -​ “Pavlov’s Pups Predict” 11.​Explain the core principles of instrumental conditioning as developed by Edward L. Thorndike. What is the Law of Effect, and how does it relate to instrumental learning? -​ Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are reinforced, while those followed by negative outcomes are weakened. -​ Used puzzle boxes to study learning in animals. -​ “Good Consequences Grow Behavior” 12.​Describe B.F. Skinner's contributions to the behaviorist movement and his concept of operant conditioning. -​ Developed operant conditioning, expanding on Thorndike’s work. -​ Introduced reinforcement and punishment using the Skinner box to study behavior. -​ “Skinner Shapes” 13.​What does it mean to call something “positive reinforcement”? What about “negative reinforcement”? Etc. -​ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., giving candy for good grades).  -​ Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., turning off a loud alarm after waking up). -​ “Positive Adds, Negative Removes” 14.​How can the study of memory be applied in the field of education? Provide specific examples. -​ Spaced repetition enhances learning. -​ Active recall techniques (e.g., flashcards) improve retention. -​ Mnemonics and visualization help with memorization. 15.​What are some applications of memory research in the legal field? -​ Helps understand eyewitness testimony reliability. -​ Identifies false memory formation in interrogation settings. -​ Influences jury decision-making and legal procedures. Memory systems & neural substrates 1.​ What is long-term potentiation (LTP), and how is it induced experimentally? -​ LTP is the strengthening of synaptic connections due to repeated stimulation. It is a key mechanism of learning and memory. -​ Induced Experimentally by: - Applying high-frequency stimulation (tetanus) to a synapse. - Recording enhanced synaptic responses after stimulation (lasting minutes to hours). 2.​ Describe the basic process of recording field potentials to measure neuronal activity. -​ Field potentials are measured using electrodes placed near neuronal populations. -​ The amplitude of recorded electrical signals reflects synaptic strength. 3.​ What are the main components of a synapse? -​ Presynaptic terminal – Releases neurotransmitters. -​ Synaptic cleft – Space where neurotransmitters travel. -​ Postsynaptic membrane – Contains receptors that receive signals. 4.​ What are the main components of the postsynaptic density (PSD)? -​ Receptors (e.g., AMPA and NMDA receptors). -​ Scaffolding proteins (help organize receptors and signaling molecules). -​ Signaling proteins (e.g., kinases and phosphatases). 5.​ Explain the role of scaffolding proteins in synaptic transmission. -​ They help organize receptors and signaling molecules in the postsynaptic density. -​ Ensure proper synaptic strength and plasticity. 6.​ Differentiate between first and second messengers in cellular signaling cascades. -​ First messengers: External signals like neurotransmitters. -​ Second messengers: Intracellular molecules (e.g., calcium, cAMP) that amplify signals. 7.​ How do protein kinases contribute to signal transduction pathways? -​ Kinases phosphorylate proteins, altering their function. -​ Example: CaMKII strengthens synaptic connections during LTP. 8.​ Explain the relationship between the intensity of stimulation and the duration of LTP. -​ Stronger stimulation = longer-lasting LTP. -​ More calcium influx leads to greater synaptic modifications. 9.​ What are the three general processes that contribute to LTP? -​ Induction – Initial stimulation (e.g., tetanus). -​ Expression – Enhanced synaptic strength. -​ Maintenance – Long-term structural changes. 10.​Describe the unique properties of NMDA receptors compared to AMPA receptors. What is required to activate an NMDA receptor? What influxes through an NMDA receptor? -​ feature NMDA receptors AMPA receptors activation Requires glutamate + Activated by depolarization glutamate alone Ion flow Allows Ca+, Na+, and Allows Na+ and K+ K+ Role in LTP Triggers calcium influx Mediates fast synaptic for plasticity transmission 11.​How do actin filaments contribute to the structural changes associated with LTP? -​ Actin filaments stabilize and reshape synapses. -​ Strengthens dendritic spines for long-term memory storage. 12.​List the ways calcium plays a role in LTP. -​ Triggers second messengers (e.g., CaMKII). -​ Activates protein kinases that enhance synaptic strength. -​ Supports gene expression for long-term synaptic changes. Cellular & molecular mechanisms 1.​ Briefly describe the characteristics of the different kinds of memory, including their duration and capacity. -​ Type of memory duration capacity function sensory 0.25 - 4 sec Very large Briefly holds sensory info (echoic = auditory)  Short term 15-30 sec 7 +/- 2 items Temporary (millers law) storage for immediate use Long term Minutes to Theoretically Stores lifetime infinite knowledge and experiences -​ “Some Short Lives Last” 2.​ What is the difference between iconic, eidetic, and echoic memory? -​ Iconic Memory – Brief storage of visual images (~0.5 sec). -​ Eidetic Memory – Vivid, long-lasting visual recall (rare, sometimes called “photographic memory”). -​ Echoic Memory – Short-term auditory memory (~2–4 sec), useful for speech processing. 3.​ According to Miller's Law, what is the average capacity of short-term memory? How did Cowan's work revise this understanding? -​ Miller’s Law (1956): STM holds 7 ± 2 items. -​ Cowan’s Revision (2001): More accurate STM capacity is 4 ± 1 items. -​ Chunking improves STM capacity by grouping information. -​ “Miller’s 7, Cowan’s 4” 4.​ Differentiate between explicit and implicit memory, providing examples of each. -​ type definition example Explicit (declarative) Conscious recall of Remembering a memory facts and events historic date (semantic) or a past vacation (episodic) Implicit Unconscious skills Riding a bike (non-declarative) and learned behaviors (procedural) or  memory developing a fear response (conditioning) -​ “Explicit Explains, Implicit Instincts” 5.​ What regions of the brain are important for explicit and implicit memory? -​ Explicit Memory: Hippocampus, cortex, thalamus. -​ Implicit Memory: Basal ganglia, cerebellum, amygdala. 6.​ What is the role of the hippocampus in memory? How was this demonstrated in the case of H.M.? -​ The hippocampus consolidates short-term to long-term memory. -​ H.M. (Henry Molaison) had his hippocampus removed, causing: Severe anterograde amnesia (couldn’t form new memories). Intact implicit memory (could learn new skills but not recall learning them). -​ “H.M. Had Memory Holes” 7.​ Explain the difference between episodic and semantic memory. -​ type definition example Episodic memory Personal experiences Recalling your last and events birthday Semantic memory General facts and Knowing the capital of knowledge France is Paris -​ “Episodes are Personal, Semantics are Facts” 8.​ Describe the concept of procedural memory and provide an example.  -​ Procedural memory: A type of implicit memory for motor skills. -​ Example: Learning to play the piano or typing on a keyboard. -​ “Practice Makes Procedural Perfect” 9.​ What are four types of non-associative learning, and how do they differ? -​ type definition example habituation Decreased response Ignoring background to repeated stimulus noise sensitization Increased response to Becoming more repeated stimulus sensitive to a loud noise over time Latent learning Learning without A rat exploring a maze immediate use but using knowledge later Insight learning Sudden realization of A chimp using a stick a solution to reach food -​ “H.S.L.I. – Habits Stay, Sensations Last, Latent Insight” 10.​Briefly describe the Multiple Memory Systems Theory and provide evidence that supports it -​ Theory: Different types of memory rely on different brain structures. -​ Evidence: -​ H.M. case – Lost explicit memory but retained implicit memory. -​ Claparède’s pin experiment – An amnesic patient avoided shaking hands after being pricked but couldn’t recall why. -​ “H.M. Forgot, His Reflexes Didn’t”