History of the British Isles (4) PDF

Key Vocabulary: c. = Circa (Means around that time period) Summary: Introduction - 16th c. shift from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar, more in keeping with the astronomic/ solar calendar. - Protestant countries did not adopt it outright: only in 1752 in Britain. (T...

Key Vocabulary: c. = Circa (Means around that time period) Summary: Introduction - 16th c. shift from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar, more in keeping with the astronomic/ solar calendar. - Protestant countries did not adopt it outright: only in 1752 in Britain. (There might be situations where you’ll find two different dates for the same event) - Due to Britain’s influence and size, it heavily influenced nearby countries throughout the centuries. - A political union slowly formed over the course of history. History of the Union - 16th c. incorporation of Wales (and Cornwall) by England. - 1707 First Act of Union: Parliamentary union between England & Wales and Prehistoric Britain - 5000 B.C: Newgrange - 4000 B.C Stone-age hunters - 2500 B.C: Stonehenge - C. 1200 B.C: evidence of prehistoric settlement north and south of the river - 1108 B.C: mythical foundation of London by Brute Britain in the Roman Era (43-400 AD) - First attempt to conquer the island by Caesar: 55 & 54 B.C - Didn’t find much in London/Londinium - Cunobelin resisted the Roman Invader (cf Shakespeare’s plate Cymbeline) - Emperor NERO Claudius: AD 41-54 successfully conquered lowland England and Wales - Iceni Tribe: Warrior queen Boudicca [Boadicca] resists the invasion (31-60 AD). She was vanquished. - By AD 78: The whole of England and Wales was under Roman control: Pax Romana Ireland was unconquered. - The Romans went as far as the Scottish Lowlands but never beyond the Highlands. - Hadrian’s Wall was a fortification begun in 122 AD to mark the limit between the Roman province of >Britannia and Caledonia up North.  - Antonine’s Wall was begun in 142 AD: it marked the limit of the Roman Empire in the British isles The Birth of a Roman city: Londinium - By the end of 1st c. AD: Londinium had become a center for industry and commerce - 3rd century AD: building the City Wall which made it a secure place. - Excavations have revealed: A forum and a basilica A market place - The reason why London was built was because of the nearby river and its strategic placing. Chapter 1 Anglo-Saxon Britain (400 AD-1066) - 5-9th centuries: 2 successive waves of invasions 1st wave (5th-7th C.): Jutes, Angles, Saxons 2nd wave (8th C.)/ Magyars(Middle Europe), Arabs, Vikings - 7th c. important testimony of London as ‘a metropolis’ (the Venerable Bede) The unification of Anglo-Saxon England under the Heptarchy - The Saxons established 7 kingdoms: the Heptarchy (East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex) - King Alfred (849-899): fights the Danes and rules over the South Western part of England. This contributed to unifying the seven kingdoms. - Led a policy of christianisation - Created 2 Anglo-Saxon institutions: the Witans and the Moots Witans: assembly of noble lords (later became the Great Council). Moots: local assemblies consisting of lords, bishops, sheriffs, and village representatives. - Londinium became Ludenwic - To the East lies a territory left to the Danes and ruled by a specific code of laws: Danelaw. The end of Saxon Era: A succession crisis (1066) - Edward the Confessor was childless - Designated William of Normandy (a duke) as his successor. - Harold was recognised King by the Witan - William decided to cross the Channel and conquer his throne. I.E this was a conquest to make William king. Chapter 2 - 1066 The Norman Conquest and its legacy Battle of Hastings (14 October, 1066) - William, Duke of Normandy defeats Saxon king Harold. - Marches on London with his troops. - Rebellions against the new king who was at war with the French King, but eventually established his dominion. - “William the Conqueror” or “William the Bastard”? It’s all a matter of perspective. - Norman aristocracy takes power over England = Marks the beginning of the Norman era. - After the Battle of Hastings, William made sure he would be anointed so that he would be recognized by a religious authority to be seen as King of England. William and his followers established an administration which made Britain more centralized. Charting the Conquered Land - William, Duke of Normandy, sails to England to conquer the throne of England. - The Domesday Book (1086): ‘a detailed survey of all the manors (=estates) of England’ - An administrative tool: to record property structures in England and establish value for taxation - A political tool: as conquest progressed rewarded knights with lands. Note: about 4,000 Saxons lost their lands to 200 Normans. - Castles were built on the estates Emergence of the feudal system in England. Saxon nobility lost their property and were redirected to Normans. The Feudal System: a definition - A social , hierarchical organization whereby individuals arc bound or bounded by reciprocal duties. A villain (Peasant) owes absolute loyalty to his lord. The lord in turns holds land as tenant-in-chief of the king/overlord Tenants’ duties - Military service - Taxation - Unable to buy or sell land without permission of his lord - Unable to travel without permission Lords Duties: Military protection Judicial Reforms: the development of common law (‘common ley’)  - Pragmatically undertook unification of existing legal practices: custom and case law. - Danelaw absorbed - Appointed itinerant justices (=judges) or justices eyre (Middle English eire, from Anglo-French, journey, eyre, from ‘errer’ to travel) - Shire courts to deal with important civil and criminal matters supplanted by manorial courts: Norman aristocrats started to act as judges and settle local disputes, very often involving land or succession. - Shire courts were meant to be more impartial and less biased. - The Rise of Chartered Communities - A charter = A written grant (= authorization) by the sovereign or legislative power, by which a body such as a borough, company, or university is created or its rights and privileges defined. (This was usually done by the king) - In 1066, King William sent his greetings “ in friendly fashion “ to the bishop and citizens of London. - His charter proclaimed his intentions to preserve laws and customs of the City “As they were in Edward’s day ”. Points to elements of continuity between the Saxon and Norman eras in the Government of the City Shows the power the citizens of London had acquired at the time of the Norman conquest. - By the 13th century: The City had obtained a great degree of independence from the King’s interference via the royal charters, and could elect its own mayor. - This state of things was enshrined (=laid down) in Magna Carta (1215). Religion - London in the Middle Ages: A great center of the Christendom - This religious presence prevailed until the dissolution of the monasteries in 1536. - Role of the religions community: Learning very few laymen, let alone lay women could write and read; only clerics were literate Health care (Done by monks and nuns) Charity provisions Conclusion The Norman Conquest: A huge cultural legacy - A process of legal and administrative unification completed by his successors, the Plantagenêt Kings (William II and Henry I) Common Law gradually replaced local customary laws - A process of cultural integration: Norman had became the language spoken at Court and in the courts of justice (‘law French’)  The Norman castle became the basic unit of feudal England. A Christian country. William’s Successors: Anglo-Norman kings - William I (1066-1087) - William II (‘Rufus’) (1087-1100) - Henry I (1100-1135) creation of the Court of the Exchequer = 20 years of civil war for succession - Matilda (1135-1153) - Stephen (non-agnatic: a member of the House of Blois) (1135-1154) Chapter 3 - Magna Carta (1215) and the rise of the English Parliament 3.1 The early Plantagenet Kings A short timeline: Henry II Curtmantle or Plantagenêt (1154-1189) : A powerful man. - Count of Anjou, Maine, Nantes, Dukes of Normandy and Aquitaine - Feudal vassal of the King of France, when he inherited a huge realm extending from the Pyrences to Normandy - Married to Eleanor of Aquitaine (formerly married to Lewis VII) Richard I Lionheart (1189-1199) - Connected to the story of Robin Hood - He had to levy taxation because of his mission to crusade for Jerusalem. Archbishop Thomas Becket (1120-1170) martyr of the catholic Church - Contested the king’s authority and Asserted the independence of the Church ‘Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest?’ - Slain in 1170 - Canterbury becomes one of the main pilgrimages in Christendom. A reminder: pre-existing institutions before Parliament - Anglo-Saxon Witenagemot (6-11th centuries): an “assembly of wise men” i.e Noblemen Supplanted by the (Norman) King’s council or Curia Regis  - King’s main advisers (ministers), nobles (landowners, barons), churchmen (bishops). Based in London (Westminster). - Functions: daily administration + taxes + advice on laws The council could vote statutes i.e laws imposed by the king to everyone. 3.2 The historical background John Lackland : one of the most detested monarchs in the history of Britain (1166-1216) - Led expensive military operations in France: placed an extra tax burden on his subjects New taxes and customs duties. Abuse of traditional feudal dues (duties to the king) - Moreover, entered an open conflict with the pope over the question of the appointment of bishops. Had to give way. - Hostility of the barons which originated in his father and brother’s rules developed into open rebellion. = civil war between his supporters and those who wanted to replace him by Philip Augustus’s son. - The Battle of Bouvines (1214) marked John’s ultimate defeat and need to find a peace settlement. (People think that the Magna Carta is that peace settlement) 3.3 The document and its contents Magna Carta granted a number of liberties and privileges to several social groups Clergymen = higher clergy (Section 1 + 63) - Rights to appoint church officials without interference of the king (“freedom of elections”) - Rights to judge them in church courts - Freedom from confiscation of the Church’s land Principle of church independence vis a vis the king. - Magnates [the barons, earls) i.e the lay nobility or the tenants in chief those who directly holding land from the King: “Shall not be amerced except through peers” (Section 21) Freeman < Anglo-Norman franctenanc (Article 20-40) - 39, “No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or exiled in any way destroyed... except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.” / “To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse. “ - “Neither we nor our bailiffs will seize any land or rent for any debt... “ Principle of habeas corpus against arbitrary arrest and arbitrary seizure of property by the king. The city of London (merchants) “ Shall have its ancient liberties and free customs “ Principle of the town charters and principle of free commerce Even the poor peasants (Article 44, 47, 48, and 83) - Right to use common lands ( Silva communis) that had been afforested by John and his predecessors. 3.4 The Impact and Legal Significance of Magna Carta A limited impact in the short run... The charter voiced: - A list of common grievances against the King - The various classes of the medieval community defending their vested interests seem to have had a very limited application for a while. = An instrument for the barons to control/check the despotie power of the king and a first step to establish a baronial monarchy. - The Pope declared the charter illegal (at John’s request!) - A civil war ensued: the barons withdrew their allegiance to the king and proclaimed Louis (Phillip Augustus’s Son) king. - Upon John’s succession, his nine-year-old son Henry was placed on the throne as Henry III - Magna Carta was confirmed. The principle enshrined in the text extended far beyond its immediate context - The principle of judgment by peers ie principle of fair trial - The principle of habeas corpus as the sole decision of a judge - The principle of the law of the land is closely linked to the notion of custom (What is commonly accepted as legal practice): The principle by which “there is a law which is above the king and which he must not break.” (W.Churchill, A history of the English Speaking Peoples, 1958) - =Power of the king was not unrestrained and was circumscribed by the law. The principle that there should be no taxation without the consent of the people/popular representation (1629, 1776 etc) Though technically not a statute, it acquired the force and authority of a statute - Embodies the idea of a law which is supreme over the King himself, the first constitutional document which recognizes the rights of the people of England. - The liberties and rights defined in negative terms rather than positively (only two are general statements of principle): amount to a limitation of the king’s power. - You speak of negative liberties as opposed to positive rights as they appear in civil law. Magna Carta is considered as the act of birth of the English Parliament - Reference to a “common counsel of the kingdom” (Article 12 & 14) made up of the church dignitaries and the greater barons. - At first, not always in session but expressly summoned by the king to examine the amount of taxes and scutage. - NB scutage: payment of money in lieu of military service to the king. Provisions of Oxford (1258) - During Henry’s minority (When he was underage), a council ruled on his behalf. - In 1258, Simon de Montfot, a leading figure of the aristocracy, summoned a parliament. - Issued the ‘Provisions of Oxford’ 1. 3 sessions of parliament a year. 2. Representatives to elect the king’s Council. - It was deemed a revolutionary Parliament and the presence of it displeased the council. The Model Parliament (1295) - In calling the “Model Parliament” in 1295, Edward I proclaimed in his writ of summons: “ what touches all, should be approved of all, and it is also clear that common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon in common.” - Edward needed to rely on the humbler classes against the rebellious aristocracy: (wealthy) bakers, tailors, butchers sat alongside Knight, abbots, and earls etc. from now on to be found in Parliament - The assembly included : 1. 49 members of the clergy and the aristocracy = ‘the Lords’ 2. 292 representatives from the various counties and boroughs: commoners/common people = ‘the Commons’ - Still unicameral (i.e. a single house) but a “model” for later Parliament The appearance of the bicameral Parliament in the 14th century. - Over the course of the 14th century Parliament became divided: 1. The House of Lords: members of the aristocracy and senior members of the clergy (the Church) 2. The House of Commons: The gentry and the ‘new’ commercial classes. Gentry = Class of people who descended from aristocracy from a lower social status. - In 1429, Parliament passed a law which gave the right to vote to freeholders whose property was worth at least 40 shillings a year. - Only the representatives for the House of Commons were voted on. - 1445, only gentlemen by birth could vote and be elected. Conclusion - A text of prominent importance in the constitutional and political history of Britain (one of the “pillars of the Constitution”) - NB reissued several times over the course of the 13th century as a reminder of the limits on the King’s powers; reached the statute book is adopted by Parliament in 1297 - Its importance however lies not in its very words once it is very much the product of the feudal times. - But it laid out a number of principles / a spirit that presided over the development of English institutions. Chapter 4 - Tudor absolutism and the Anglican Reformation (Part I 1485 - 1603 ) 1337-1453: the Hundred Years’ War The beginning of the Tudor dynasty: the reign of Henry VII (1485-1509) - A period of relative stability and prosperity - A period of demographic expansion: English population almost doubled 2.2 M in 1500 to 4 M people in 1600 Henry VII’s chief concerns - To secure the continuation of his own dynasty - To restore the royal function - To maintain peace at home and abroad. Measure for peace? - Henry of Lancaster married Elizabeth of York: ascends the throne as Henry Tudor - Summons Parliament and has them: 1. Vote 28 bills of attainders against the opponents to Richard III 2. Annul the bills against his own supporters Bill of Attainder: A Parliamentary procedure in which Parliament passes a judicial sentence on an accused person as if it were a court of law. In essence Parliament acts in place of a judge and jury, with the Bill of decainder supplanting a judicial verdict Key Political and institutional reforms - Reformed the Court of Star Chambers, an independent court of justice located in the royal palace. This became a symbol of royal prerogative. - Summoned parliament as rarely as possible (7 times in 24 years)  - Secured a continental alliance: his eldest son (Arthur) married to Catherine of Aragon (aunt of Spanish Emperor Charles V). Reform of the Court of the Star Chamber: an inquisitorial court - A prerogative court covering minor criminal offences: Ex: livery and maintenance, riots and other civil disorders, misconduct of sheriffs, bribery of juries etc. - But against the grain of common law: 1. Examined cases by an inquisitorial procedure (no cross-examination) 2. Summoned NO jury 3. Not bound by case law Two young princes and a Spanish princess: - Arthur marries Catherine - Dies prematurely at 15 (Arthur) - Henry VII secures the alliance with Spain by marrying his younger son to Catherine after obtaining a papal dispensation. At the time, Spain was THE superpower of Europe. Henry VIII (1509-1547) the ‘Henrician Reforms’ 2.1 The Early years Henry’s reign (1509-29) - Henry VIII: a young (athletic) opinionated prince - Tries to establish his power by forming European alliances. By now, Britain had lost most of its territories with the exception of Boulogne (They wanted to get more power no matter what). - Henry VIII and Francis I (François 1er) meet in friendly fashion in 1520 near Boulogne s/mer in English territory (1347-1558). In the 1520s Britain was still closer to Spain than France. With the Pope.. ? - Married Catherine, his sister-in-law after his brother’s death => alliance with Catholic Spain secured - A staunch supporter of the Papacy: 1. Upholds the doctrine of the Church against Luther’s 95 theses (1517) and becomes “Defender of the Faith” (Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ie an Assertion of the Seven Sacraments against Martin Luther: ‘the King’s Book’) 2. About to join the anti-French Holy League with Spain Late 1520s: A changing context - Male Dynasty challenged : no make heir (Just a girl: Mary) 1. Became the king’s “great matter”  - Henry VIII meets Ann Boleyn, a learned young lady acquainted with the new protestant ideas on the continent (Wants her because she is pretty and ‘COULD’ bear a male heir). - Seeks the annulment of his marriage from the Pope: but the Pope is held prisoner by Emperor Charles V (Catherine’s Nephew). The Pope refused the annulment. The Pope did not want to alienate the Habsburg family and Rome was under the direct authority of the Spanish King. - Entails constitutional and jurisdictional changes meant to deprive the pope of his authority over the land = The ‘Schism’ (Schism meaning the break or more specifically in this context, the break of Britain from the Catholic Church) Tudor absolutism and Anglican 2.2 The Jurisdictional Reforms (1529-1536) - The Henrician reform started as a jurisdictional revolution, but had all kinds of repercussions: institutional, political, diplomatic, economic, cultural, etc. - To obtain the annulment of his marriage he summoned: 1. The members of the higher clergy: the Convocations of the Clergy 2. The members of Parliament: the Reformation Parliament (1529-1536) was so-called because it passed the main measures leading to the break with Rome. 1531 Revival of the Praemunire Act: Prohibited assertion of the Pope’s jurisdiction ie the clergy had to accept Henry as “only supreme head of the English Church” - This effectively placed the law of the land above canon law and deprived the Pope of his sovereignty over the English clergy. 1533 Act in Restraint of Appeals: Declared the English clergy had authority to pronounce the “annulment” > Archbishop Cranmer did pronounce the annulment and the marriage with pregnant Ann Boleyn valid. 1534 (First) Act of Supremacy (cf. brochure) 1534 Treasons Act - Made sure that all public officers recognized the King’s Royal Authority over the English Church. If they were to not take the oath they would be executed like Thomas More. - The King broke with the authority of the Pope in Rome: Amounts to a schism. The redefinition of Henry’s powers - Henry VIII proclaimed by the members of Parliament assembled and convocations of the clergy “(only) supreme head of the church of England called Ecclesia Anglicana” - A temporal dimension: he became “emperor in his own real” as is made clear by the reference to “the imperial crown of this realm” and has all the attributes of an emperor (Sword and Bible cf. portraits of the king by Hans Holbein) - A spiritual dimension:yet, the act also gives a spiritual dimension to the notion of supremacy. How were these measures legitimized - A hint at divine right which has given power to Henry VIII as God’s lieutenant on Earth: has been “recognized by the clergy of the realm in their convocations”. - Feared the consequence of an excommunication i.e exclusion from Christendom (Community of Christian): in need of another source of legitimacy > Parliament (+ English Clergy) - The Supremacy doctrine was acknowledged and enacted by Parliament: reaches the Statute Book. 2.3 The doctrinal and political fallout of the Reform The King becomes the source of orthodoxy and heterodoxy or even heresy - Act of Ten Articles (1536): Retained only 3 (baptism, penance, the Eucharist) out of the 7 sacraments of the catholic religion - Act of Six Articles (1539): Featured a return to religious conservatism i.e reassured the 7 sacraments. - When the Act of Supremacy came into place, the king was only head of the Church of England. - A sacrament serves as a way to consecrate your belonging in Christendom. Religious dissent amounts to treason A notorious example of this policy: the condemnation of Henry VII’s Chancellor Thomas More - A prominent humanist (Author of Utopia, 1516) - Perished under the Treason Act Another consequence: the dissolution of the monasteries (1536) Official Reasons: Security: Catholic convents and monasteries viewed as hotbeds of rebellion. Morals: Corruption of the regular clergy: the Church was a great landowner (about 20-25% of the territory= and partly lived on tithes (=dîme) (cf. protestants and catholic critique ex: Rabelais) - Catholic convents and monasteries viewed as hotbeds of rebellion 1536 Dissolution of the monasteries - Started with larger institutions > process continued under Edward VI’s reign - Involved a massive transfer of property to the Crown: The Church owned about 20-25% of the lands; many were sold to the gentry which was a way of gaining their support - Durably removed the Catholic cultural heritage in England (revived at the time of the Gothic Revival 18-19th century) - Balance power of the aristocracy: the rise of the gentry as the economic and political power as represented in the House of Commons, (Middle class/ upper middle class or the bourgeoisie)  - Justified the reform by saying that the revenue will go to covenants, refurbishing them like hospitals (Places for the poor). However it did not happen as the revenue was spent on military expedition. The Constitutional implications of the Henrician Reform - Emphasis on statute law / common law and canon law (Law of the church). This is where the importance of statute law became recognized. - Parliament becomes ‘an omnicompetent body’ (G.R.Elton): Until the Tudor Era, statute law was mostly confined to voting taxes. - =With the reformation, Parliament extended its area of competence (ex: succession). - Parliament was rarely in session and it was mostly used to consent on taxation. Securing his descendance (‘heirs to his body’) on the throne by statute law 3 succession acts in 9 years - Act of Succession (1534): Declares Mary illegitimate and Elizabeth heiress to the throne. - Act of Succession (1536): Declares both Catherine and Elizabeth illegitimate and designates Edward next-in-line. - Act of Succession (1543): Mary and Elizabeth returned to the line of succession, but Edward is to reign first. )> challenged the role of custom and common law and gave a new prominence to statute law. Conclusion of part II: What was the Church of England like in 1547 - Church’s jurisdiction: the supremacy doctrine prevailed 1. The Pope was no longer the head of the Church and the Sovereign was now only supreme head of the national Church (Anglicana Ecclesia) 2. =Established Church of England - The Church doctrine at the time of Henry’s death (1547), the church was catholic in outlook (7 Sacraments) - The Government of the Church: episcopacy (=hierarchy i.e bishops and archbishops inherited from catholicism) preserved. - The Church is protestants in terms of beliefs but has Catholic forms. Tudor absolutism and the Anglican Reform Part III 1547-1607 Edward VI: taking the Reform further - Son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour - Under the protection of his uncles (Somerset and Northumberland), exercised a radically protestant policy  1. Continued the policy of dissolution of the monasteries; reign marked by episodes of iconoclasm (destruction of religious images) 2. Published a Book of Common Prayer (2 editions and is protestant) i.e. prescriptions for the religious service = Enforced by an Act of Uniformity. Dies prematurely Mary I (AKA ‘Bloody Mary’) and the return to catholicism - Marries catholic Phillip II (her cousin): Duke of Milan, King of Spain, King of Spanish possessions in the Americas and King of England de jure uxoris (King through his wife) - The Act of Repeal (1554) abrogates the doctrine of Supremacy enacted under Henry VIII. Made the church a branch of the Catholic Church again. - Parliament reenacts 15th heresy laws: about 300 protestants executed (as compared to 90 under Henry VIII) and become “Protestant martyrs”; many flee to the continent cf. John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. - Dies childless: succeeded by her protestant sister, Elizabeth. The Elizabethan Settlement (1558 - 1603) Elizabeth’s ideal of ‘Concord - More interested in stability than in dreams of conquest 1. Abroad: puts an end to the war with France and surrenders Calais to France (1558) 2. At home: well aware had to reconcile her protestant and catholic subjects 3. In France religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants had resulted in constant wars of religion (8 between 1562 and 1598) 4. =Concord is her motto: unity in ONE religion. This notion should be distinguished from that of “toleration” which supposes there are several religions. - Could be achieved through a via media between Rome (the Pope) and Geneva (Protestant reformers like Calvin or Farel) = A compromise between catholicism and protestantism // idea of a broad-based (inclusive) church. 1. Restores the Supremacy doctrine (1558) and becomes “supreme governor of the Church” 2. Seeks to achieve religious uniformity: 3rd Book of Common Prayer. Not following the Common Prayer would be the equivalent of being a political opponent or a nonconformist. 3. Enforced by a new Act of Uniformity (1559): Ministers not respecting the prescriptions of the Book during the church service or members of the laity not attending the church services will be punished (fines to imprisonment). The Church of England under Elizabeth a via media - Supremacy doctrine reasserted - Uniformity reasserted (enforcement of the Book of Common Prayer)  - Doctrine of the Church (39 Articles of the faith, 1563) 1. 2 sacraments only (baptism + the Encharist [Celebration of the Jesus Christ’s sacrifice on the cross, bearing mankind’s sins] without transubstantiation) under the influence of Calvinist ideas 2. Rituals: Emphasis on ceremony (vestments, position of the altar...) reminiscent of catholicism 3. Episcopacy inherited from catholicism retained. - => To a large extent, this settlement prevails today, even though Britain is now a multi-confessional country (i.e multiple religions allowed) - Most important person was the archbishop of Canterbury Religious divisions under Elizabeth - Difficult to reconcile everyone: emergence of a catholic oppositions and a protestant oppositions 1. Catholics sought the restoration of catholicism (“recusants”) 2. Puritans (or precisians / malcontents / dissenters ) aspire to the reform of the Church of England. Wanted to completely reform the Church of England because it had “strayed away from the core nature of the Bible “ I. Education and benefices of the clergy II. Episcopalian structure (bishops + archbishops° III. Reform of manners to fight moral corruption. Religious uniformity: A policy difficult to implement - Many people fined or imprisoned for religious reasons throughout her reign - Tensions at the local level: the ‘malcontents’ set against population tradition (taverns; theater, May games) - Such conflicts paved the way to 17th-century civil wars Meanwhile... in Scotland - 1567 Mary Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart, Elizabeth’s cousin) deposed by her protestant subjects to the benefit of her one-year old son. - John Knox creates a Presbyterian (Protestant) church: the Church of Scotland (the Kirk). Scotland used to be a majority Protestant country with a strong Catholic minority. Archbishops and bishops are elected by the churchgoers. - Mary seeks refuge in England she is executed in 1587 - Her son James VI was raised in the Protestant religion. Chapter 5: Stuart England the FIrst ‘English’ Revolution 1603-1649 James VI of Scotland/James I of England (1603-1625): theoretician of the divine right of kings  - 1603 James VI of Scotland (Stuart) (1567-1625) succeeds Elizabeth I (his cousin) on the throne of England as James I of England (1603-1625) - England and Scotland become united under the same Crown, but not officially yet - The “Philosopher King”: well-versed in theology and politics - Author of several treatises and speeches on the divine rights of kings. Had them translated and published. The Puritan’s claims and the Hampton Court Conference (1603) - The Millenary Petition presented to the King: claim for a reform of the Anglican Church and the removal of superstitious practices. I. Respect of the Sabbath (Sunday) II. Reform of the clergy’s education. Majority of the clergy were not properly educated or sufficiently paid. III. Reform of the episcopacy (Presbyterianism) ? Not explicitly asked for but the discussion that ensued would lead to the abolition to the episopacy which led to James saying... - The King answers: ‘No bishops, no King’! I. One King, one religion II. Strong power of the Church III. => An ‘Erastian’ position’ - advocating the supreme authority of the state in church matters. One significant concession to the puritans: King James’ Authorized Bible (KJV) - An updated translations to the Bible - From original Hebrew sources - Containing: I. Old Testament (of prime importance for protestants) II. The New (the Gospel) The Case of Proclamations (1611): A limitation of the royal prerogative - Sir Edward Coke consulted on the king’s capacity to create new offenses (building houses in London) - Found that: I. ‘... The king cannot change any part of the common law, not create any offense, by his proclamation, which was not an offense before, without parliament ‘ II. The king has no prerogative but that which the law of the land allows him.’ This amounted to a significant restriction of the king’s power. The Reign of Charles I (1625 to 1649) Charles I, a protestant (Anglican) king married to a catholic Princess (French catholic): Henrietta Maria (Sister of Louis XIII) 2.1 The early years (1625-1629) - 1627: Siege of La Rochelle by Louis XIII’s troops - English expedition to relieve the besieged Huguenots - England already at war with Spain (Thirty Years’ War 1618-1648) - Charles I launched an expedition to save the protestants in La Rochelle. Charles I needed money to fund the expedition! - A disaster: accused of paying lip service (Didn’t seriously try to help the cause) to the protestant cause (Henrietta Maria!). Heavily damaged Charles I’s reputation. 1627: the Siege of La Rochelle - 1562 and 1598: 8 wars of religion in France - 1598 Edict of Nantes and Nîmes signed by Henry IV: the policy of religious toleration towards the Huguenots - 1621 La Rochelle proclaims ‘the New Republic of La Rochelle’ - Louis XIII launches an expedition to regain control over the city => End of the toleration policy in France. The burning issue of taxation: The Bate Case and Darnell Case - The king’s right to levy taxation had been granted by Parliament for life ever since the 13th century. But now increasingly contested: - In Parliament: sought to restrain the collection of taxes by the King. 1625 rummage and poundage granted for one year only. - In the Courts: The Bate Case (1606) - A merchant called Bate challenged the King’s right to levy taxes. - The chief justice, Baron Fleming upheld the King’s right to do so => Bate convicted. In 1625, Parliament imposed on the King that he needed to renew his right to levy taxation every year. This decision would later on lead to the Darnell case. The Darnell or Five Knight’s Case (1627): Pleaded the king had breached 2 fundamental principles: 1) No taxation without the Parliament’s consent  2) No man should be imprisoned upon the king’s arbitrary decision. => 5 Knights imprisoned after refusing to pay the loan (Taxation) that was demanded of them; they asked for a writ of habeas corpus to be issued, which was refused by the King’s Bench. 2.2 The Petition of Right and Charles’ ‘personal rule’ (1629-40) - In 1628, the members of Parliament make a list of grievances: 1) Seek remedies 2) Reaffirm some fundamental civil liberties 3) Arbitrary arrest and imprisonment in violation of the “habeas corpus” (a principle asserted in Magna Carta) 4) Billeting/quartering of soldiers 5) Rule by exception: marital law and exemption from punishment 6) Arbitrary Taxation (‘forced loan’) imposed on the subjects (I,II,III): tallage, tonnage and poundage (“Ship money”) I. Tallage: tenure duty introduced by the Normans and condemned by Magna Carta (= land tax ie taxe foncière) II. Tunnage : is a measure of the cargo-carrying capacity of a ship. The term derives from the taxation paid on tuns or casks of wine. III. Poundage: in English law, poundage was an ad valorem (in proportion to value) customs duty imposed on imports and exports at the rate of 1 shilling for every pound of goods imported or exported. => A mythological aura Cf. Magna Carta The references to past statues and the Ancient Constitution of the Realm The petitioners claimed ancient liberties against the arbitrary power of the king as enshrined in past statues and custom: - Edward I Plantagenêt (1272-1307): Statutum de Tallagio non Concedendo (“no tallage or aid … laid or levied by the king or his heirs… without the good will and assent of …”) NB. Tallage : tenure duty introduced by the Normans and condemned by Magna Carta - Edward III (1327-1377) : no loans to the king against one’s will (1352) I. “against reason and the franchise of the land” II. “against the laws and free customs of the realm” III. “the statute called the Great Charter of the Liberties of England” etc. = here the Petitioners refer to what became known as “the Ancient Constitution” of England What was at stake in the Petition  - Not the royal prerogative (ie royal power) per se: exercised by the King and upheld by several courts of justice - But the arbitrary power of the king: the exercise of the royal prerogative (e.g. to collect taxes) without parliamentary consent and sometimes against the law of the land. Key Notions promoted in the Petition 1) The liberty of Parliament to make against the royal power to rule by decree or by exemption from the law of the land (cf. offenders who claimed an exemption from punishment) 2) The “rights and liberties [of English subjects] according to the laws and statues of this realm” (VIII) 3) the central notion of “the rule of law”: no freeman can receive any punishment except “by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land”/ “by due process of law” NB Serfdom had been officially abolished by Queen Elizabeth I: but freemen came to designate freeholders The Fallout of the petition: huge! - Charles I gave his royal sanction, but did not apply its principles - Charles I dissolved parliament and began eleven years of ‘personal rule’ ie without summoning Parliament from 1629 to 1640 - The constitutional crisis resulted in a polarization of two camps: I. The defenders of the king’s prerogative and royal power II. The champions of parliamentary liberties as enshrined in statutes and custom The political and constitutional conflict: two conflicting views about power - Royal Prerogative I. Strong royal authority by divine right II. Prerogative bodies: court of Star Chamber and Privy Council III. Defended by King and Caveliers - Common Law I. The immemorial liberties of the English people upheld by Parliament and independent courts of justice are conceived as necessary counter powers to the king’s rule II. Promoted by: 1) Common lawyers (legal scholars) such as Sir Edward Coke (pronounce “Cook”) 2) Parliamentarians: JOhn PYM leader of the faction in Parliament The Religious Conflict - At this stage, no mention is made of religion, but religious conflicts are very much present in the backdrop with: - William LAUD, Archbishop of Canterbury: a close adviser of the king  - He believed the Church to be strong pillar of the monarchy and wanted to impose religious uniformity (episcopalianism + Book of Common Prayer ) 1640: A mounting antagonism between king and parliament Charles I promoting: - The divine right of Kings - The alliance between Crown and Church - Religious uniformity (one king, one religion) An increasingly Puritan Parliament defending: - The liberties of Parliament - ‘Liberties of conscience’ (For non conformists) Side note (After 1640): Charles I tried to enforce the Book of Common Prayer onto Scotland which was badly received due to their religious differences. A revolution erupted only for Charles I to launch an expedition [Which meant he had to summon Parliament which they promptly denied] which was denied. - Charles I lost the war because he couldn’t launch a proper expedition. Also, the Scottish wanted for Charles I to pay for the damages of the war. - Charles I tried to change the composition of Parliament by forcing an election (Some people were appointed or elected, different from modern day UK elections). - Parliament further contested the King’s decision. This would lead to them attempting to limit the King’s power. - Parliament also sent the King 19 propositions meant to settle the conflict between the Parliamentary Camp and the King’s people. (1642) I. Reform of the Courts of Law II. Restricted the Right of taxation III. Proposed the appointment of Ministers and Councils subjected to Parliamentary consent IV. Reform of the Church V. Gave control of the army to Parliament. VI. Gave control over public affairs. For the S, make sure to explain at the start why certain dates were chosen and why they are important. Examples of topics: 1215 to 1295, Henry VIII’s divorces Chapter 5 - Stuart England and the First English Revolution II (1603-1649) 2.3 ‘The Bishops’ War’ (1640) and the road to the Civil War (1642-49) 1640: Expedition to Scotland to impose the episcopacy and the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Presbyterian Scotland =>the Scots rebelled: the ‘Bishops’ War’ To make things worse Charles I tried to raise new funds : - summoned parliament (April) - dissolved in May : Short parliament >A bit later he was forced into summoning another parliament as the rebels wanted him to pay for the cost of the war (Nov 1640) A second Parliament was then summoned (Long Parliament 1640-1660) : - arrest Archbishop Laud - pass a series of Acts limiting the power of the crown - they also sent the king a list of 19 propositions: The Irish Rebellion (1641-49) - Started as catholic rebellion against protestant settlers, ended as a rebellion against the new English republic - Massacres of protestants - Rebellion repressed by Charles I and then Cromwell - Slaughter of catholics at Drogheda and Wexford (1649) marked the end of the Irish Rebellion. The Nineteen Propositions The King was asked to consent to: - The Triennial Act by which he had to meet Parliament at least once in three years and for a minimum period of 50 days + bill forbidding prorogation or dissolution of Parliament - Reform of the court of laws (abolition of Court of Star Chamber). The Star Chamber didn’t have to respect the legal procedures that other courts had to follow which made it controversial. It was also used to suppress religious beliefs. - Tonnage and poundage Act granted Charles his ancient customs to levy taxes but with restrictions: taxation had to be consented by Parliament/ to levy ship money declared illegal - Upbringing and marriage of his children placed in Parliament’s hands - Appointment of ministers by Parliament - A reform of the Church by synods (Presbyterianism) - The Militia Ordinance Act i.e placing the raising of an army under the control of Parliament => Parliament meant to limit the king’s prerogative and transfer some powers from the king to Parliament The King’s Answer  - Charles conceded that « laws are made conjointly by a King, a House of Peers and a House of Commons chosen by the people, voting freely and enjoying special privileges » =>notion that England was a mixed constitution (ie monarchy + aristocracy + democracy) - However did not consent to the appointment of ministers by Parliament, to the reform of the Church and to the Militia Ordinance => issued a proclamation forbidding his subjects to obey the Militia Ordinance adopted by Parliament - Charles accepted the idea that the two houses and the King made statues/laws together. - The things that he disagreed with were considered an overstep of the boundary of his prerogative. Noted: He responded in 1642 and the trigger of the civil wars. The road to civil wars. - His rejection of the propositions were interpreted as an assertion of Charles I’s absolutism. The idea that the king’s powers should not be limited by parliament or any governmental body. - By now the negotiations had reached a dead end and the antagonism between the defenders of kingly office/royal prerogative and the liberties of parliament soon degenerated into an open armed conflict. Two Camps: Royalists: - The King’s Army - Caveliers: aristocrats and upper gentry mounted on horses He levied an army to crush the rebellion, AKA, Parliament supporters. Parliament: - The Parliamentary army: New Model Army - A militia: citizens in arms defending their liberties - Gentry (middle class) and working classes (roundheads) - Emergence of a general Oliver Cromwell (Puritan) Underpinned by social and geographical divisions Royalists:  - The King - Lords (aristocracy) and landowning Gentry (Commons) - (Anglican) High Churchmen (Laud, Strafford…) - Catholics (Mostly from royal families: Hoped that they’d enjoy special privileges if the Royalists won the war.) - Cavaliers (mounted on horses) - North and West = Royalists. Parliamentary Camp - Parliamentarians - The Commons - The Puritans - The ‘industrial’ areas - The navy - Foot soldiers - Ports - London/the City Battle of Naseby, 14 June 1645, a decisive victory for the Parlementary Camp over the Royalists. The breakdown of the Old (Better known as Ancient) constitution in 1649 After they had won the Civil War, the Parliamentary camp were unsure on how to change the governmental structure of the government. Another issue was what to do with the King, many people were conflicted on how exactly to punish the King. - The more conservative members of Parliament were expelled so the more radical members could continue to push their ideals. This was also referred to as the Rump. The Rump was solely composed of Republicans and they convicted Charles I of High Treason (By vote) and killed him. (1649) Parliamentarians rejected Stuart Absolutism. They voted: - The abolition of the Royal Prerogative and prerogative courts (Star Chamber, Privy Council) - The disestablishment of the Church of England… - The abolition of the House of Lords (contrary to the advice of the most conservative parliamentarians (Presbyterians, Cromwell, etc.) - The execution of Archbishop Laud and the King: “regicide” or “tyrannicide”, this was heavily debated as it had profound impact depending on if it was “tyrannicide” or “regicide”. The Defense of Tyrannicide  - The members of the Rump claimed to be ‘tyrannicides’ not ‘regicides’ - To legitimate their decision, they drew arguments from 16th C. resistance theories, usually protestant, against catholic sovereigns - In France I. François Hotman, Franco-Gallia (1573) II. Anonymous (Hugues Languet?), Vindiciae contra Tyrannos (1579) - In Scotland: I. George Buchanan, De Jure reani apud Scotos (1579) Conclusion - The 1640s in the British Isles were marked by various armed conflicts - More accurate to speak of the ‘war of the three kingdoms’ than simply the (first) ‘English Revolution’ - Historians still debate today as to the causes of these wars: the political and religious components mingled with strong social components. - We should also take into account the geopolitical dimension of these conflicts: France and Spain acting as counter-models for England, and England trying to establish its colonial domination over Ireland. Chapter 6 - The Interregnum 1649-1660 1. 1649-53 The Commonwealth of England Introduction - The term “Interregnum” is used to refer to the period between the fall of the monarchy in 1649 and its restoration 1660 - However, the actors of the English Revolution found it difficult to achieve a stable political regime and the period was characterised by several constitutional changes and instability. - The main issues were: I. Who should the source of sovereign authority: one house, two houses, one person…? II. What religious settlement?: an independent (Presbyterian church on the Scottish model) or a national church regulating organizing/regulating religious diversity? 1649-53 The Commonwealth of England - In 1649 a form of republican regime was established: I. based on one House of Parliament, purged of its most conservative elements: the Rump Parliament. II. regime called the Commonwealth of England III. There was also a council of state. The Commonweal or Commonwealth - Term in use in the English language to designate the polity ie the political organisation/society - The Saxon version of the term « republic » from the Latin res-publica - But while the term « republic » reminded of Latin Antiquity, the term « commonwealth » was more acceptable 2. 1653-58 The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell The Protectorate (1653-58) - Cromwell dissolved what remained of the surviving Parliament in 1653 and replaced it by a nominated assembly: the Barebones Parliament - published The Instrument of Government which made him Lord Protector of the Commonwealth: the first and last written constitution England ever had, describing the distribution of power and setting a number of political rules => establishment of the Protectorate The Instrument of Government: the first (and last?) written constitution England ever had The Instrument of Government established “four fundamentals”: - Government by one person and by the people assembled in one house - Regular sessions of Parliament that had to renew itself - National Church ensuring liberty of conscience - Division of the control over the army between the Protector and Parliament a ‘mixed constitution’ ? Or the institutionalization of the authoritarian rule of a single man (Cromwell) i.e. a dictatorship (parliament not summoned regularly; rule by decrees…)? He ruled as a dictator. There was both a monarchical element and democratic element. The Lord Protector: the defender of religious tolerance… - As a Puritan, Cromwell had suffered from religious discrimination - He was prone to favor liberty of conscience - For protestant dissidents (Puritans): the various protestant sects that had emerged in the wake of the protestant reformation - For the Jews: invited the Dutch rabbi Ben Israel to plant a new community of Jews in England. They had been banned from England in 1290! But not for all  - Catholics in Ireland and Scotland supported the royal troops and were severely suppressed. - The Great Rebellion in Ireland: Cromwell also remembered for crushing the Catholic rebellion in Ireland (1649-50) 3. 1658-60 Oliver’s succession and restoration of the Monarchy - Oliver died in 1658: succeeded by his son Richard - Richard found it difficult to rule without Parliament: convened the Rump - Various constitutional propositions were made to the Rump, in particular aiming to introduce ‘another house’ = amounted to restoring bicameralism - But the republican party (John Milton, James Harrington) could not agree on the form this house would take: an elected chamber or a permanent Senate composed of ‘the best’ ? - =>to this day : the composition of the ‘upper house’ has been a moot point Epilogue Many people were scared of stability and wanted to return to monarchy to create stability within England. General Monck who had previously supported the Parliamentary camp prepared the return of the heir to the throne: Charles Stuart (Charles I’s son) Prior to his return Charles issued the Declaration of Breda (in Holland): - granted pardon to the Puritan members of the Parliamentary Army: ready to tolerate ‘tender consciences’ ie protestant dissidents - exception made of the regicides who received a posthumous execution: hanged, drawn and quartered (high treason) He returned to England and ascended the throne as Charles II: marked the restoration of the monarchy in England and Scotland Chapter 7: The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution (1660-1688) 7.1 The Restoration of the Stuart Monarchy and the ‘Clarendon Code’ (1660-1685) - Following the death of Oliver Cromwell, no settlement had been found : it became clear that more and more people wished for the return of the monarch. - In the midst of a constitutional crisis General Monck (or Monk) prepared the return of Charles II from exile. - Edward Hyde prepared the Stuart heir, Charles, who was on the continent but exiled. (He went to find him)  - Took the opportunity to create the Declaration of Breda (Holland) 4 April 1660. I. General pardon granted for the crimes committed during the English Civil War and the Interregnum for all those who recognised Charles as the lawful king… e To prepare his return... - Pardon granted for crimes committed during the Civil War and Interregnum on both sides - Property by those who had purchased land during that period was preserved. - Religious Toleration: on the agenda but remained controversial. - The Army had to be paid and reintegrated: recommission in the Royal Army. The next step… What kind of political regime? Restoration of: - The royal prerogative and Privy Council (a prerogative body) I. But not the Court of Star Chamber or the High Commission (ecclesiastical court enforce the laws of the Reformation) - The Church of England - The House of Lords restored => Not quite a return to the same. | To serve as a sort of continuity and stability. The new ‘balance of power’ - King’s Answer to the Nineteen Propositions (1642): England defined as a mixed constitution i.e. laws are made by King, Lords and Commons. - But following the constitutional developments of the first half of the century and the civil wars: The balance of power has shifted in favor of Parliament. The ‘Cavalier’ Parliament (1661-1679) - Keen to assert its liberties vis-à-vis the King’s power, especially when it came to religious matters. - Contained a majority of Anglicans and members of the aristocracy and upper gentry within its ranks (hence its nickname) - A religious ‘conservative’ Parliament wishing to impose religious uniformity (against the King’s will) - Voted the so-called ‘Clarendon Code’ (in reference to the leader of the Cavalier majority-Anglican) I. Legal statues passed to re-establish the supremacy of the Anglican Church II. Targeted religious dissenters ie protestant nonconformists and Roman Catholics The ‘Clarendon Code’: imposing religious uniformity - The Corportaion Act (1661): limits municipal office to Royalist Anglicans - The Act of Uniformity (1662): Imposes the Elizabethan Book of Common PRayer (leads to the persecution of dissenters: 1,760 ministers and 150 dons and teachers lost their living, with no compensation). - The Conventicle Act (1664): Anyone who attended a Dissenters congregation The Test Act (1672) - The Test Act requested to Take an oath: I. “I, N, do declare that I do believe that there is not any transubstantiation in the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, or in the elements of the bread and wine, at or after the consecration thereof by any person whatsoever.” - This body of law amounted to barring Protestant dissenters and Catholics from any public employment. How did the King react to this Legislation? - Charles II: an Anglican but mother French and brother James (Duke of York) a Catholic. - Under the Test Act, the latter had to resign his position as Lord of the Admiralty! - Charles personally believed that toleration should be established. - Since Parliament had voted for this penal legislation, the only way he could do that was by exempting some of his subjects from the punitive statutes. - In doing so he used his royal prerogative (body of privilege and immunity): a constitutional convention agreed on by the most prominent jurists and common lawyers. - Issued two declarations of indulgence: in 1662 and again in 1672. Stated that it was in the name of toleration. The situation in the late 1670s - Charles II was aging: in spite of his numerous illegitimate children, no legitimate male heir. - According to the law of primogeniture, the successor to the throne would be his brother James, the Catholic Duke of York. - Attempts to ban James from the line of succession (‘Exclusion)’ The ‘Exclusion Crisis’ (1679-81) - Parliamentary strategy: a faction in Parliament aimed to introduce a bill that would exclude the king’s brother from the line of succession and replace him by the Duke of Monmouth, one of the king’s protestant bastards: The Whigs. I. Failed as a result of the Tory opposition, in the House of lords mainly. (Reason: Tradition and Divine Right)  - 1678: Revelation of an alleged Popish plot against the King (Charles II) by Titus Oates meant to scare the English subjects and warn them of the dangers of a Catholic succession. - 1683: the Rye House Plot against James > whig leaders a arrested and executed ex: Algernon Sidney, the ‘Whig Martyr’ 7.2 James II’s accession and the Glorious Revolution (1685-1688) - The year 1685 (Turning point for the country) in Britain: Catholic James II ascended the throne of England (and Scotland) - In France: Revocation of the Edicts of Nantes and Nîmes: his cousin Lewis XI (Louis XIV) officially puts an end to a century of religious tolerations towards the French protestants (the Huguenots). I. A parallel between the two kings was made as they are related to each other. James II’s impossible tolerations policy - King James (just as his brother) wished to promote the cause of Catholicism. - Sought the support of protestant nonconformists: but English people staunchly opposed to Catholicism equates with popery and absolutism! - 1687: new declaration of indulgence enabled him to appoint Catholics at Oxford and in the standing army recently created. - Amounted to de facto toleration for non-Anglicans: but in anti-catholic context perceived by the Anglican-Tory Establishment as a threat to the Established Church (disestablishment) and as an abuse of the royal power. To make things worse - 1688: a male heir was to Maria of Modena and the prospect of a catholic line of succession on the throne was now looming ahead. - The Anglican Establishment feared the prospect and agreed to overthrow James: they decided to ask James’ son-in-law, the Protestant William of Orange to come to England and threaten the King. I. William of Orange, a Dutch Stadtholder (and a cousin) who was also protestant, but not an Anglican! II. Mary was James Stuart’s daughter (King James II): raised as a Protestant. 1688: the sequence of events - On landing on the English soi, William carried banners that read “The liberties of England and the Protestant Religion, je maintiendrai. “ - James II fled (to Scotland and then France, near Saint-Germain-en-Laye's castle). - William and Mary were offered the throne jointly and were presented the Bill of Rights. (Though they didn’t sign it literally, it served as a social contract)  - The transfer of the Crown was conditional to their accepting the terms of the Declaration of Rights (drafted by 29 Whigs and 14 Tories). The Bill of Rights (1688): a fundamental constitutional document See Page 32 in your brochure A (long) list of grievances against the Stuart kings and a celebration of liberties. - Acknowledged the royal prerogative - Opposed: the abuse of the prerogative by the Stuarts I. Cf. “by pretense of prerogative” / “the pretended power of suspending the laws…” - Advanced: The notions of parliamentary sovereignty and the rule of law. - Now commonly admitted that the King was not above the law but subject to the law of the land. 7.3 The historical and legal significance of the event - To what extent was the event a Revolution? - In what way was it “Glorious” or “Bloodless”? In what way was the event a ‘revolution’? - A return to the (good) Ancient Constitution (rather than a sea-change) in symbolic and constitutional terms cf. etymological sense of the term ‘revolution’ / the revolution of the Sun around the earth. - A victory of Parliament over absolutism. - The birth act of modern monarchy in Britain i.e parliamentary monarchy. I. Monarchy is preserved in accordance with tradition. II. The monarch was to rule with the people or consent of the people (summon Parliament regularly): notion of people’s sovereignty Cf. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government ‘On the Legislative’: The monarch was not to ignore its recommendations or directions. - System praised by Voltaire Lettres anglaises ou philosophiques (1734): Montesquieu L’Esprit des Lois (1748) Why ‘glorious’? - The whole process was rather peaceful... at least in London. - The Revolution is sometimes called “the bloodless revolutions” as opposed to the First English Revolution (1642-49) - William and Mary were said to have been placed on the throne of England by divine Providence! - After James was deposed, there were several attempts until the mid 18th century by James’ successors to reconquer the throne. War soon after the Glorious Revolution (Successors of James supported by France). A true revolution (in the modern sense of the term) or a conservative reaction? - Democratic revolution? Parliamentary monarchy vindicated but no democratic revolution I. The people at large took no part in the process: at the time only a small portion of the population could vote (propertied class, no women of course) - A permanent settlement? I. Rather a temporary deal: parliamentary monarchy not secured once for all. II. 18th c: Queen Anne (James’ younger daughter) refused her royal assent for the last time and George III attempted to reassert the royal prerogative. - An enlightened revolution? Introduced limited toleration for nonconformists and catholics (Toleration ACT 1689). I. But denied political and civil rights until the 19th century. On top of that, could not access higher education i.e. university. - A bloodless revolution? The supporters of James II - the Jacobites - were beaten in Scotland and repressed in Ireland in a bloodshed. I. But the Jacobite threat on the throne of England prevailed until the mid 18th (Battle of Culloden)