History Of International Politics PDF

1 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 2 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 3 History of International Politics Second Level- Political Science Third Level Economics...

1 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 2 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 3 History of International Politics Second Level- Political Science Third Level Economics Dr. Safaa Saber Associate Professor of Political Science Political Science Department Academic Year 2024/2025 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 4 Table of content Unit 1: The Emergence of Westphalian System 1648 Unit (2): French Revolution and Napoleonic Era Unit (3): Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe Unit (4): Era of Nationalism and European Spring 1848 Unit (5): Unification of Italy Unit (6): Unification of Germany Unit (7): World War I Unit (8): Russian Revolution Unit (9): World War II Unit (10): Cold War Era Unit (11): Unipolar System History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 5 Introduction This course is an introductory undergraduate-level course; it introduces students to the study of international relations (IR) from a historical perspective. This course investigates key moments and developments (key historical events) in international history from the Peace of Westphalia 1648 to the collapse of USSR in 1991. Therefore, this course aims to; Consider the impact of major historical events, define some main terminologies within the discipline of IR, highlight important Leaders and their roles and to Refer to key dates. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 6 Unit (1) The Emergence of Westphalian System 1648 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 7 Prior / Before Westphalia Treaty ▪ (1618 – 1648) - It was a religious war in Europe between catholic and protestant. - The Thirty Years’ War was a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. - It remains one of the longest and most unhuman wars in human history, with more than 8 million casualties resulting from military battles as well as from the famine and disease caused by the conflict - The Thirty years' war went through many phases as it had changed from being just a civil war to a conflict involving most of the great powers. - In short, the main causes of the thirty years' war were; A) Religious conflicts between Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists. B) However, there were political causes too as the king of France who was in fact a catholic decided to back or help the protestant as the bourbon family (the ruling family) was going against the Holy Roman Empire. To sum up the thirty years war was not only a religious war but also a war about balance of power and political power in Europe. What is Westphalia Treaty? - Westphalia treaty is a major turning point in European modern History. - It is a series of peace treaties signed between May -October 1648 in the cities of Osnabrück and Münster in Germany. - The treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire. - The treaty was meant to settle conflicts especially conflicts over religion. - Therefore, it was an agreement between Catholics and Protestants. - The peace of Westphalia is regarded as a milestone in the development towards tolerance and secularization. - The Westphalia treaty altered the balance of power in Europe and resulted in reduced influence over political affairs for the Catholic Church, as well as other religious groups. - Over the course of time, Nation state system evolved because of Westphalia treaty, as later it brought democracy, diplomacy, international law…. etc. Importance of Westphalia Treaty: - The Peace of Westphalia created a modern notion of statehood. - Prior Westphalia treaty, there was no nation state system. - It replaced the feudal system with a system based on coequal sovereign states. - European states regarded each other as equal. - They mutually recognized their rights to organize their own domestic affairs including religion. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 8 - The pope regarded this treaty as ' sin' because the treaty ended the monopoly of the pope and replaced it by the power of sovereign rulers. As The treaty of Westphalia stated: Sovereign ruler of a state has a power over nation and state, including religion'. The Provisions and the Principles of Westphalia treaty ▪ The Westphalia treaty had many provisions but we will focus on: ❖ Fragmentation of the holy roman empire: - The Holy Roman Empire had been divided into many independent states. - Europe had been divided into three main religions 1- Catholic 2- Lutheranism 3- Calvinism ❖ Confirmation of many principles: 1) Sovereignty - The idea that every state has the right of self-rule over its people and territory. - Only sovereign states could enter into relations. 2) Legal Equality - All states are equal. 3) Non-Intervention - No interference was permitted internal affairs of other states. 4) National Loyalty The consequences and Impact of the Westphalia treaty and 30 years' war 1- Holy Roman Empire - Holy roman empire became no longer a major political power in Europe - Approximately 40% of the population of Roman Empire died and its resources exhausted. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 9 2- Europe: - European states as France, Netherlands, and Sweden had strengthened their identities and structure as nation states. - France as a party in thirty years war became the dominant in Western Europe. - Sweden as a party in thirty years war became the dominant in Baltic area. Why Westphalia treaty 1648 is regarded as a turning point in IR and in modern History of Europe? - Treaty 1648 increased Europe's ability to live with religious diversity. - Sovereignty of states to manage their own religious affairs was introduced. - Paving the way for creation of modern states with peace, which is kept by balance of power. - Between the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Congress of Vienna (1815), European states managed their external affairs within a balance of power system. - Balance of Power: system of shifting international alliances that prevented any country from becoming too powerful. - In this system, diplomacy became a major component of the relations among states. Important Notes The most Important and great powers in Europe were; 1. France 2. Austria 3. Russia 4. Prussia 5. England  The international system was a multi-Polar system. Key Events: - Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) - Westphalia Treaty 1648 Key Dates: - 1618-1648: Thirty Years War - 1648: Westphalia Treaty History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 10 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ej7eFLgFzN4 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 11 Unit (2) French Revolution and Napoleonic Era History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 12 France Prior /Before French Revolution 1789 - France was the most powerful, most populous and most wealthy country in Europe. - French culture was admired and used by the upper classes throughout Europe. - French language was the language of aristocracy and Royal courts all over Europe. - All monarchs in Europe (except England) claimed to rule based on divine's right as God's agents on earth. - The king was the state. - The Church was also a powerful institution and close to the monarch. ❖ Balance of power system was challenged latter by; 1- Enlightenment. 2- French revolution. 3- Industrial revolution. 4- Emergent power of middle class. Triggers/ Causes of the French Revolution: 1- Long term and Structural Factors: - The socioeconomic changes of the eighteenth century, the ideas of the Enlightenment, and weaknesses in the monarch. - The weakness of the monarchy: Louis had become a virtual prisoner of Versailles, rarely leaving the Paris region, and he was consequently increasingly isolated from his subjects and the diverse regions of his kingdom. Rising discontent. 2- short term and immediate factors: - Government debt, a financial crisis, unemployment and a bad harvest year. - An inefficient system of taxation: the church and the nobility were exempted from taxes. - Debt crisis: the financial and material aid provided by France to the American colonies during their war of independence against Britain. - The cost of living increased while wages is not. - Food shortages and even famine. - The financial crisis led the king to convoke a meeting of the Estates General in 1789. 3- Socially: the growth of cities and a new middle class (the bourgeoisie). 4- Culturally: Enlightenment writers were broaching ideas of religious and cultural freedom, representative institutions, and legal equality. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 13 Enlightenment and Its Impact: - The Enlightenment emerged in the 17th and 18th century. - The enlightenment was: ✓ A movement ✓ Set of ideas - Also called as the age of reason because of its emphasis on the power of human mind to liberate individual and improve society. - It means knowledge can be derived only from experience, experiment and observation. - The most important enlightenment thinkers were French such as Philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau. - Enlightenment ideas provided inspiration for the French revolution 1789 but not only the cause of revolution - Emphasis on Reason and observation laid foundation for modern social science - Enlightenment set base for human rights, popular sovereignty, tolerance, and respect for law that lie at core of modern European history. International relations is considered a product of its history. If you want to understand the former, you have to understand the latter. ❖ Note that: The International system structure: - The international system was a multi polar system. ✓ The most important and great powers in Europe were: 1- France 2- Austria 3- Prussia 4- Russia 5- England Balance of Power (until WWI) the victor did not want to crush the defeated but to maintain balance. - France was the most important country on the Continent at the time of the Revolution. It was the leading center of arts and sciences and the crucial point of the intellectual upheaval of the Enlightenment. French was the most widely used History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 14 international language, the language both of diplomacy and of most of the royal courts of Europe. France was the most populous country on the Continent. - 1789 marked the storming of the Bastille and the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the king, Louis XVI (r. 1774–1793), was not actually dethroned until 1792 and he was executed in 1793. - The French revolution put an end to the divine right of the kings. - It represents a new era: The right of peoples to self-determination. The main events of the French revolution: ❖ May 1789: Cahiers / list of Grievances) ‫قائمة المظالم‬ - France was absolute monarchy. - Louis XVI (16) decided to convoke the Estates General to address government reforms and the tax system. the three estates are; - First Estate clergy and church, control everyting - Second Estate is nobility, and - Third Estate which represents 98% of the population in France (no power- no money) pay tax - The Estates General had not met since 1614. - The delegates of the estates general brought with them the cahiers or the list of Grievances a. The cahiers generally called for moderate reforms of the judicial, Tax and royal systems. b. They were not revolutionary. c. The process of drawing up cahiers/ lists had politicized population and focused national attention on the assembly in Versailles. ❖ 1789: The Revolution begins - Louis XVI (16) approved new taxes - Clergy and nobility said yes - Third estate ask Louis to change the rules. - Louis refused. - Reaction: In June 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly - Third Estate had given half of delegates and voting became by head. 'There was a precedent of a change' - When they next tried to assemble, they found the doors of their meeting place locked, so they moved next door to an indoor tennis court, where they swore the famous Tennis Court Oath: “Wherever we meet, there is the nation" Tennis Court Oath will not stop until the people have laws. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 15 ❖ Storming the Bastille 14th July 1789 - On July 14 1789, a crowd of eighty thousand stormed the Bastille, the old royal prison. - The Bastille may have had mostly symbolic importance, but in revolutions, symbols are crucial. - The fall of the Bastille, like the fall of the Berlin Wall two hundred years later, became an important symbol of the Revolution, and that day, Bastille Day, is still celebrated as a French national holiday. ❖ National assembly and feudalism - In August 1789, the newly styled National Constituent Assembly officially abolished Feudalism. ❖ Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 26,1789): - August 26th 1789 was the Declaration of the Rights of Man. - Another symbolic foundation of the French Republic. - The declaration clearly reflects Enlightenment ideals and the ideas and language of Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Locke. - It ends; third estates, power in the hands of the people, ends absolute monarchy ✓ It declares: 1. The natural, inalienable and sacred rights of man. 2. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. 3. Rights include liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. ❖ 5th October 1789: King Louis XVI (16)'s reaction to this declaration and its impact on people - King Louis XVI refused to sign the declaration. - Upon the Louis refusal to sign the declaration, a crowd of women and 20,000 national guardsmen under Lafayette obliged the royal family to move from Versailles to Paris. - Louis could be more responsive to the will of the people in Paris rather than in Versailles. ❖ For the next two years (1789-1800): constitutional monarchy 1) The constituent assembly - Working on a new constitution - Debating the powers of the monarchy - Struggling and dealing with the country's continuing financial crisis - In effort to deal with the country's continuing debts - They enacted the civil constitution of the clergy History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 16 2) King Louis XVI - He looked on as a sort of de facto constitutional monarchy ❖ June 1791: New Constitution was presented to the public - Providing for an elected legislative assembly - Granting the king only a suspensive/limited veto. ✓ King Louis 's reaction to the new constitution 1791 - He disagreed the new constitution ✓ European Powers' reaction to the new constitution 1791 - Prussia and Austria soon joined in war against France. ❖ September 1792: The First French Republic - New elections were called. - and in September 1792, the newly elected National Convention: 1) argued the recent constitution, 2) abolished the monarchy, 3) And declared the establishment of the first French republic. No more king anymore, all power to the people. Note: Now France is witnessing its Fifth republic The Radical republic and terror This Photo by Unknown Author is Conditions in France after the fall of the monarchy 1. The fall of the monarchy marked the triumph of popular democracy and a return to universal manhood right to vote This Photo by Unknown Author is which was introduced in 1789 and abandoned in 1791 2. Charismatic leaders. 3. Political clubs 4. Crowds of regular folk, who cheered, shouted and threw things at political leaders and speakers attended meetings of the assembly. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 17 5. Crowd participation had a dramatic influence 6. Deciding the fate of the former king (King Louis XVI) Louis’s Execution in January 1793 - he was beheaded on the guillotine - After nine months: his wife Marie Antoinette was beheaded too. - The guillotine: a mechanical beheading device became another symbol of the Revolution. - Executing people publicly. - Another symbol of the French revolution. Counter – Revolution Within month of Louis Execution (February 1793) Europe's reaction to Louis' execution (Counter- revolution) - Britain, Holland and Spain joined Austria and Prussia in the war against France. - The threat that the French revolutionaries posed to the monarchies of Europe was immediate. Committee of Public Safety - In France, the combined threats of counterrevolution and foreign war strengthened the hand of more radical factions within the National Convention, which set up a Committee of Public Safety to defend the gains of the Revolution and eliminate its enemies. - Led first by two charismatic leaders like Danton and then by Robespierre. - The guillotine executed both. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 18 The revolutions end; A new Directory - After the death of Robespierre, the convention dismantled the revolutionary dictatorship, wrote yet another constitution, and established a five-man Directory to hold executive power. - The Directory would last for four years, trying to find middle ground between radical revolution and royalist reaction. - Democracy versus violence and terror executions. - Democracy lasted 9 years. Coup D’état 1799 - The directors themselves supported a coup d’état in late 1799. - They placing the power in the hands of a dynamic young military officer named Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleonic Empire - Napoleon became a general in 1793 at the age of twenty-four. - After some military victories in Europe, He returned to France as a hero. - Though, a coup d’état in late 1799, placing the power in the hands of a dynamic young military officer named Napoleon Bonaparte and even after the coup of 1799, his popularity remained high. - He was elected first consul for life in 1802, and two years later (1804) crowned himself Napoleon I, emperor of France. - He was to hold that title for ten years, and during most of that time, France dominated Europe. - Napoleon tried to; Preserve the major gains of the Revolution. Avoid a return either to radicalism or to monarchy. Through; 1. He weakened representative institutions 2. censored the press, 3. put down rebellions 4. Imprisoned or executed those caught in either royalist or republican conspiracies. 5. He made peace with the Catholic Church, signing a contract with the pope and eliminating most of the harassment of the church and clergy. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 19 Napoleon and Europe, Hero or Tyrant? - Napoleon formed mass armies and led them into other countries to spread the ideas of the Revolution and to enhance his own power. - He fought for France and for the slogans of the French Revolution. - Napoleon was not a revolutionary, but he solidified many of the revolutionary changes of 1789–1791, and he himself supported most of the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers. - France controlled Spain, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and much of Germany, Poland, Croatia, and Slovenia. - Through his military conquests, he spread many of the ideas of the Enlightenment and the revolution across the European Continent. Therefore, Napoleonic Code is the most enduring legacy, which remains today the basis for the legal systems of France and most of the rest of Europe. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 20 The monarchs’ reaction to the French expansionism; - Most of monarchs recognized Napoleon as a threat both to the old order and to the balance of power system in Europe. ❖ France- Russia Confrontation: - In 1812, Napoleon launched an attack on Russia. - By the time Napoleon’s army reached Moscow. ✓ Russian Cold Winter - Russians deprive French soldiers of shelter from the cold. - French army either deserted or frozen from cold, hunger and irregular attacks by the Russians. - Only 70 thousand made it back to France. ✓ European powers against France (counter revolution) - By this time, Austria, Prussia, and Britain were allied with the Russians against Napoleon. - The allied armies pressed on, entered Paris, Napoleon was sent on exile to island of Elba off the Italian coast (Napoleon‘s first exile). ❖ Battle of Waterloo 1815: - Napoleon escaped within a year, rallied support in France, and confronted the allied armies again, only to be defeated finally by a British and Prussian army at the famous battle of Waterloo, in Belgium, in 1815. - This time, he was exiled to a small island in the South Atlantic, St. Helena, where he died in 1821. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 21 - St. Helena: Napoleon ‘s second exile The end of Napoleonic Empire/ restoration of the bourbon monarchy and Balance of Power - With the defeat of Napoleon, European monarchs attempted a restoration of the old order in France (Balance of Power). - Louis XVIII (Louis 18), brother of Louis XVI (louis 16), was placed on the throne, thus restoring the bourbon monarchy. - As Louis XVIII issued a constitutional charter which include a degree of freedom of speech and parliamentary government. - The boundaries of France were returned to those of 1790. Suggested Videos 1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snriliNuVAg 2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F-qNnLevOQQ Others - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NeVJDd1XhIk - https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=lTTvKwCylFY - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqllxbPWKNI&t=10s - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mY3SEMTROas History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 22 Unit (3) Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 23 Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe After the end of Napoleonic Empire France 1- Austria 2- Britain 3- Prussia 4- Russia ❖ Paris Treaty I 30th of May 1814: - Allies: Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia. Against France - Louis XVIII 18 - Bourbon family. - Autocratic regimes in Europe. - A secret article: non-involvement of France in the European Balance of Power. - Allies (victors) proceeded to Vienna Settlement “September 1814-June 1815”. ❖ ‘Age of Metternich’ - Metternich was the chancellor of the Austrian empire. - Prince Metternich was the leading counter revolutionary of the period. - His main concern was stability. - Metternich regarded revolution as a problem. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 24 ❖ Vienna Settlement September 1814 – June 1815 ✓ Vienna Settlement objectives; 1-Balance of power. 2-Peace and stability in Europe based on legitimacy. 3-Reward the victors; Territorial adjustments (Reward Victors) (Compensation Policy); 4- Punish the losers ‘Compensation policy’’; Penalties imposed upon France ✓ The congress system: - The idea of cooperation was expressed into two separate documents 1- The act of Holly alliance: Produced by Tsar Alexander September 1815. 2- The Quadruple Alliance and Article VI of Treaty Paris II in November 1815. ❖ The Holy alliance September 1815 - It was produced by: Tsar Alexander, Tsar of Russia - It's main signatories :Prussia, Austria and Russia - All rulers except the pope, Britain and the sultan signed it. ❖ Article VI and Quadruple alliance 20 November 1815 - It was produced by efforts of a Lord Castlereagh the British foreign secretary - Its main signatories: Austria, Russia, Britain and Prussia ✓ It was agreed that: - Quadruple Alliance of Austria, Russia, Britain and Prussia should continue for another 20 years to exclude Bonaparte dynasty from France. - Congresses would be held that the necessary that allies could discuss ' great common interest'. The concert of Europe ( Diplomacy of Conferences (1818 – 1822) - Between 1818 and 1822 there were series of conferences to discuss matters of common interest especially revolutions which broke out in some states of Europe in 1820 and continuing revolutions in South America. 1- Congress of Aix La Chappelle 1818. 2- Congress of Troppau, Silesia 1820. 3- Congress of Laibach 1821. 4- Congress of Verona 1822. 5- Congress of St. Petersburg 1823. 1- Congress of Aix La Chappelle 1818 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 25 - The first congress settled the issues of France; Debts and withdrawal of allied armies from France. ✓ The Tsar of Russia was seeking to - converting the system into sort of alliance against revolutions - Sending troops to south America to crush revolution in the Spanish colonies - Raising an international army ✓ Castlereagh warned his fellow diplomats against these proposals. (Britain objection). 2- Congress of Troppau, Silesia 1820 - In 1820, revolts broke out in Spain, Portugal and Napoli, Turino, Pedmont, Lombardia, Venice (Italy). - The state paper of 5 May 1820: Castlereagh regarded that intervention could upset balance of Power in Europe. (Britain objection). - The Troppau Protocol Metternich's view; agreement of Russia, Prussia and Austria that they would intervene in the affairs of any state in Europe where events seemed to threaten the interests of any other state. - Castlereagh protested at the misuse of the congress for this purpose. (Britain objection). 3- Congress of Laibach 1821 - The king of the two Sicily’s (Italy) had asked for help, it was agreed that Austria should suppress the revolution there. - The Holy alliance powers (Prussia- Russia- Austria) claimed the power to support any established government against internal revolt, but - British representative objected. ((Britain objection) 4- The Congress of Verona 1822 - New British Foreign secretary, George Canning was like Castlereagh in opposing general European agreements to intervene in the internal affairs of other states. - He objected the French intervention with 100,000 troops in Spain even so, that intervention took place in 1823 with the approval of the congress. 5- The Congress of St. Petersburg 1823 - The Greek war of independence, Tsar sympathized with this rebellion because Ottoman Empire was Russia's old enemy. - Russia – France- Britain agreed on Greek independence. - The Russian situation is different due to national interest - The common threat, which was (France), ended. - The alliance among allies also ended. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 26 To Conclude:  Metternich system of balance of power is based upon; = Treaty of Paris I May 1814 = Vienna settlement June 1815 = Holy alliance September 1815 = Quadruple alliance November 1815 = Diplomacy of conferences (1818- 1823) History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 27 Unit (4) Era of Nationalism and European Spring 1848 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 28 Era of Nationalism and European Spring 1848 Nation-States - Autonomous political communities based upon the nation. - A group of people with commonalities. - Commonalities: Common religion, language, identity history, ethnicity, customs and traditions. - Political unity bringing together People of one nationality in one state. - Being independent and unified (National Unity) - Two major nation-states in Europe: France + England Triggers /forces of nationalism a) Industrial Revolution Urbanization+ a new Middle class. b) Literature; arts & music& writings and paintings Individualism c) Enlightenment Ideas of; popular sovereignty, individualism, Human Rights and Democracy. d) Liberalism economically & politically. Nationalist Separatism - When nationalism arises in multinational states or empires, nationalist groups seek to be separated and achieve independence, which is known as ‘nationalist separatism’. - Nationalist Separatism is cconsidered as a threat or danger to the survival of empires. - Empires are multinational states, resisted Nationalism, Like; ✓ Ottoman empire ✓ Russian empire ✓ Austro-Hungarian Empire. Irredentism - Irredentism claims: Unifying nationalist groups living on different territories. - They demand for territory belonging to another state. - Nationalist groups like; Germans, Italians, Polish, Hungarians, Finns, Slavic, Russians, Greek. ✓ Ex: Kurds and their goal to build Kurdistan by uniting Kurds from Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. (irredentism) ✓ Israel state is built up on irredentism. Types of nationalism - Civic Nationalism; The forging of centralized, unified national states by monarchs from the top to bottom (up down). - Charismatic leaders are source of power History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 29 - Popular Nationalism; The forging of states from bottom- top (down-up) is more recent and linked to the enlightenment and uses the revolutionary ideas of people as source of the power. - Masses are source of power. 1848: The Peoples’ Spring - National Independence Movements& Revolutions aimed to one Nation-State (Independence from Empires). - National and popular revolutions/outbreaks/ unrest occurred and widespread everywhere in Europe ‘People’s spring’. - This Represents Dual-Sound of the revolutions (Domino Effect). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dPUVlVmwHc0 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 30 Successful National Independence Movements& Revolutions History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 31 Supressed/failed National Independence Movements& Revolutions History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 32 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 33 Important Remarks A) France Had witnessed three revolutions: 1) French Revolution in 1789 2) French Revolution in 1830 3) French Revolution in 1848 B) The year 1848 is sometimes called the people’s spring because in the course of a few months, popular revolts and revolutions occurred all over Europe. (Domino effect). This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC These began in France and affected every country BY-SA except England and Russia. C) The Ruling Monarchy in France: The Bourbon Family The Ruling Monarchy in Austria: Hapsburg Family Consequences and Legacy of 1848 - Despite these defeats, 1848 revolutions propagated seeds of democracy and nationalism that were introduced by the French revolution 1789. - France moved one-step closer to representative government with final abolition of monarchy. - Prussia got a limited Parliament. - In Russia, New Tsar Alexander began a series of liberalizing reforms. - Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph made compromises to Liberals and Nationalists in which monarchy recognized desire for Hungarian Autonomy and established dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy. - Ideas of nationalism and national unification were frustrated in 1848 but later proved victory in Germany and Italy. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 34 Unit (5) Unification of Italy History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 35 Unification of Italy Pre - Unifications of Italy and Germany ❖ Crimean war 1853-1856 The Parties were Britain, France, Turkey and Kingdom of Sardinia versus Russia. - Crimea was a part of Russian Empire (Christians) dominated by Turkey (Muslims). - Crimea represents the connection between Mediterranean and Black Sea, through Dardanelle Strait. - British and French troops supported Turkey against Russia. - Sardinia (Southern Italy) joined the war against Russia to get the support from Britain and France for the idea of United Italy. ❖ Results of Crimean War: - Defeat of Russian Empire. - Neutralization of Black Sea and Dardanelle Strait. - joint European protection over ottoman Christians and a European Guarantee of the ottoman empire. - Isolation of Austrian Empire (absence of Austrian Empire in the War) - Italy got the support from Britain and France for the idea of Italian Unification. Russia ‘defeat in the war and Austria abstention from the war weakened the European balance of power. - Romania and Serbia were recognized as independent states. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 36 Unification of Italy: - Sardinia had the only native Italian dynasty in Italy. - Lombardy and Venetia had been belonged to Austrian empire. - In middle part of Italy, were small Papal States controlled by the pope. - In the south, Kingdom of two Sicily’s were controlled by branch of the bourbon dynasty in France. ❖ Towards a unified Italian state - Mazzini believed in Revolutionary Nationalism. - Popular Nationalism (Revolution) was crashed in 1848. - France and Austria crashed Independent Venice and Rome. - Sardinia had won gratitude from France and Britain for participating in the Crimean war. - Napoleon Third of France was supporting Sardinia against Austria, which dominated northern Italy, so Cavour Provoked war against Austria in 1859. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 37 - In May 1861, an all-Italian parliament was convened and proclaimed The Sardinian ruler Victor Emmanuel as King of Italy. - Five years later 1866, when Austria was at war with Prussia, Italy seized Venetia. - In 1870, when France was distracted by Franco-Prussian war, Italy seized the rest of Papal States, included Rome and Limited the pope’s domination to Vatican. - 1870: Complete unification of all Italian territories. “We created Italy, but we must create Italians” challenge of creating a sense of common Italian identity - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mqIpfAsSyv0 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 38 Unit (6) Unification of Germany History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 39 Unification of Germany - Emperor of Prussia: King Wilhelm I - Chancellor: Otto Von Bismarck by Iron & Blood 3 military wars of Germany; 1) Bismarck VS Denmark 1864. 2) Bismarck VS Austria 1866. 3) Bismarck VS France 1870. 1- Bismarck Versus Denmark 1864 - Defeat of the Danish King - Victory of Prussia and Austria ✓ Results: - Holstein dominated by Austria - Schleswig dominated by Prussia History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 40 2- Bismarck VS Austria 1866 - Prussia’s seven weeks’ war) over Holstein ✓ Results: - Defeat of Austria. - Establishment of Prussian Confederation (22 states and Parliament). 3- Bismarck Versus France 1870 - Southern Germany and Bavaria were dominated by France - The Franco-Prussian war lasted only six weeks ✓ Results: - Victory of Bismarck and defeat of France. - Napoleon third was taken prisoner, abdicated and took refuge in England. - The establishment of French Third Republic, which survived until WWII, then France, signed a humiliating peace accord, agreeing to pay huge reparations to Germany. - Handover of Alsace & Lorraine to Germany. - Humiliation to France: Declaration of German Unification from Versailles in France. - Bismarck proclaimed the establishment of a new German empire with Wilhelm I as emperor of Germany. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 41 Austrian Empire Weakness the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary - It was excluded from Crimean war 1853:56 - The growing forces of nationalism particularly among the Magyars (Hungarians) who had long complained about the dominance of Germans in the Empire and about German bureaucracy and centralization. - It was defeated by Prussia in the seven weeks war 1866. ✓ Result: - The Austrian defeat in 1866 weakened Austria and quickened Magyar demands, the result was a compromise of 1867 the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. - Austria and Hungary each got its own constitution and parliament but they were joined together under the common crown of the Hapsburgs. - The nationality problem of empire was not solved, it gave benefit to Hungarians and Austrians but it did not help other nationalities in the empire especially the Slavic people. The Consequences of Unification of Italy and Germany - The Unification of Italy and Germany reshaped the map of Europe and the balance of power in Europe. - The German empire was the largest and most populous state on the continent, and most powerful one. - The Industrial revolution was advancing quickly in Germany and with industry came military power. - Bismarck’s policies had created Germany that was united, dynamic and strong. Implications of Nationalism and Unifications - Nationalism had mixed success elsewhere on the continent during the 19th century - The Greeks, Italians, German, Belgians, Romanians, and Norwegians got their nation states but the Czechs did not. - Russian empire had to wait another century before gaining their independence, - Nationalities in the Balkans were the triggers for the World War 1. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 42 Important Remarks A- Type of nation states in Germany and Italy After their unification: Civic Nationalism, as it is directed from the top (charismatic leaders) B- Most of the failed nation states in 1848, as trials in Prussia, Italy had failed :They were popular nationalism. C- France until WWII had witnessed three republics. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tdPvI9h4i8 History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 43 Unit (7) World War I History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 44 World War I The Road to WWI ❖ Alliances Pre-WWI: - 1890 :Resignation of Bismarck because of emperor’s refusal to renew of the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia ‫معاهدة الضمان‬. - 1891 :Russian-French Alliance. - 1904 :Friendly Agreement between France & Britain. - 1907 :Russian-British Agreement. - Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria and Italy. - Triple Entente: Russia, France and Britain. - Bosnia and Herzegovina Crisis: 1908 - Balkan wars against Ottoman Empire: 1912-1913. ❖ The balance of power system ✓ The main components of the balance of power in Europe were The Triple Alliance The Tripe Entente Germany Russia Austria France Italy England The main components of power in the Balkans The influence of ottomans and Russia Austrians in region Serbia Extending protection over the Serbs History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 45 ❖ Features of International System 1890-1914 1- Militarism: arms races, high development of technological weapons. 2- Nationalism: demands of one nations states. 3- Colonialism and expansionism: (Imperial aspirations) of great powers. Challenges to Peace and Balance of power in Europe ‘Triggers to WW1' 1) Bismarck’s wars of German unification and the emergence of a strong and united Germany in the middle of Europe challenged balance of power. 2) The rise of Nationalism in the Balkans: History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 46 1878: Serbia gained its independence from ottoman turkey and saw it’s self as the leader of south Slav nationalism. 1870s; Bulgaria and Romania independence out of Ottoman Empire. 1908: Bosnia Crisis. 1912-1913: Balkan wars against Ottoman Empire. 3) Militarism; arms races, high development of technological weapons. By 1914, most European states had the largest armies they had ever maintained in peacetime. 4) Colonialism&expansionism: The growing rivalries among the major powers and Imperial aspirations of great powers like Britain. WWI: ❖ Parties of WWI: Trigger/Spark of the WWI - 8 June 1914: The assassination of the Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand while he was reviewing troops in Sarajevo, the capital city of recently annexed Bosnia by a young Bosnian Serb nationalist called Gavrilo Princip. (Minor incident). - The Austrian emperor Francis Joseph was horrified at the murder of his nephew. - Austria broke diplomatic relations, declared war on July 28 and the next day began an artillery bombardment of Belgrade, the Serbian capital. - German’s Kaiser Wilhelm, a close friend of the murdered archduke and an ally of Austria. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 47 ❖ Escalation: - The localized dispute (minor incident) between Austria and Serbia escalated and became international war. - On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, two days later it declared War on France, German troops advanced toward France through neutral Belgium thus bringing England into war. - France had alliance with Russia, - Britain joined on 1916 because of German submarine warfare on British supply ships in their way to its colonies ended up sinking passenger lines as well with the loss of 1,200 lives including American citizens inflamed US Sentiment against Germans and helped draw The US into the war. ❖ WWI Events: - Germany, Ottomans supported Austria. (Central Powers) - Russia, France, Britain Supported Serbia. (Allies) - Between 1914-1917 Zero-sum game. - The end of the war came because of general exhaustion and from two events occurring in 1917; the Russian revolution 1917, which took Russia out of the war and the entry of the United States into the war. - In the end, 8 million soldiers were killed in the war. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dHSQAEam2yc End of WWI: 1) Russian Revolution 1917 and withdrawal of Russia out of WWI - Russian soldiers mostly peasants were sent into battle without weapons and sometimes without shoes. - The enormous causalities, food shortages and economic collapse increasingly turned the population against war and the monarch (Tsar Nicholas II) - Tsar Nicholas II was ousted and a provisional government took power but did not take Russia out of the war. - Mensheviks and SPs supported the gov while Bolsheviks refused. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed - Marxist leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile called for 'peace, land and bread.’ - Bolsheviks revolted against the gov under Lenin and Stalin’s leaderships. - The Bolsheviks formatted a new gov and seizure of power in what called the October revolution 1917 and declared the Russian Republic. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 48 - March 1918: Bolsheviks decided to withdrawal from the war, and signed reconciliation treaties with Germany, Austria and Ottomans which is known as ‘Bristlitovesk treaty’. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOK1TMSyKcM 2) USA intervention in to the war - Before 1917, USA foreign policy was based mainly on isolationism, neutrality, non- alliances and non-interventionism. - When in early 1917, The Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare; they sank several American ships, leading the US to declare war on Germany in April 1917. - The American president Woodrow Wilson declared war on Germany under the slogan raised by Wilson “To make world safe for democracy”. - Additionally, Germany sent a telegram (Zimmerman Telegram) to Mexico to support it in war and to get their land back from USA. - Up on, Historical and specific relations between USA and Britain. In addition to USA‘s Economic relations with France and Britain, it supplied the allies with both food and weapons. - US mobilized quickly; by 1918, they were on their way to Europe. - US involvement in the war tipped the balance and forced the Germans to peace in November 1918 ending the war. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 49 ❖ Parties at the end of the WWI (1917 – 1918) Consequences of World War I: ❖ Central powers’ situation: - The human casualties were devastating: eight million men were killed. - They were defeated &weakened after USA involvement in April 1917 - Germany fought alone until September 1917. - The final end of absolute monarchies in Europe with the defeat of the central powers, Germany, Austria-Hungary and the ottomans, - Germans revolted against the emperor and in November 1918 the Republic had been declared in Germany - Ottomans and Austria decided to withdrawal. Allies' situation : - Russian withdrawal March 1918. - The Bolsheviks executed 1917 revolution in Russia, The Tsar. - The Bolshevik revolution in Russia inspired left wing revolutions in Germany, Austria and Hungary 1918-1919. - 1924 ,the Supreme Soviet of the USSR formally adopted a constitution, declaring the founding of the USSR. (16 Republics) - By USA involvement, their situation was consolidated. - They became the victors (the victorious allies) - By the end of WWI, USA returned back to Isolationism and non-interventionism History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 50 Post- WWI Settlements ❖ Brest-Litovsk treaty (March 1918): - a reconciliation treaty between Russia versus Germany, Austria and Ottomans. ❖ Peace treaties in winter 1919 and Wilson Fourteen Points - The Allied Victors assembled in Paris in winter 1919 to draw up peace treaties dealing with defeated states. - President Wilson laid out his ideas for a post war peace in his fourteen points, which trumpeted principles of democracy, Liberalism and nationalism. - Wilson called for national self-determination for the peoples of Europe and the redrawing European borders along national lines and he called for international political organization to settle disputes and prevent wars ‘league of nations. ❖ Treaty of Versailles 28th June 1919: - Punitive & humiliated for Germany; - paid compensations to allies - Alsace & Lorena returned back to France - French supervision on Saar region “coal & steel producing area” for 15 years. - Disarmament- reducing militarization. ❖ Paris Treaties - Paris treaties created a host of new central European states and drew a completely new geography. - Out of the defunct empires were carved seven new independent states: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. - Austria and Hungary were now small separate states. - Romania was enlarged by the addition of parts of Russia and Hungary. - Greece acquired territory from Turkey. - With the breakup of Ottoman Empire, Turkey appeared as independent republic, Syria and Iraq were League of Nations mandates to France or Britain. - There were still minorities remained in most states which will be fertile ground for troublemakers later as Germans and Hungarians in Czechoslovakia. ❖ League of Nations ‘General association of nations’ - It emerged from the Paris meetings. - The league was based on the principle of collective security, which held all countries collectively would be responsible for protecting the sovereignty and independence of every other country. - Collective Security” replace “balance of power system”. - US did not join the organization. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 51 - The new communist regime in Russia refused as they considered it to be dominated by bourgeoisies' states. - Germany was prohibited from entering the league until 1926. - The League of Nations from the beginning was weak. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IH46GNJYqQE This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA ❖ San German Treaty: Sept 1919 - Collapse of Hapsburg dynasty - Germany refused a union with Austria - Austrian empire collapsed ❖ Trianon Treaty (June 1920): - Slovakia separated from Hungary - Slovakia joined Czech (Czechoslovakia) - Croatia separated from Hungary ❖ Siver Treaty (August 1920): - Collapse of Ottoman empire - Nov 1922: new secular republic of Turkey ❖ Luzan treaty: 1923 - Declaration of Turkey's independence by Kamal Ataturk. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 52 Unit (8) Russian Revolution History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 53 Russia before Russian revolution ‘Tsarist Russia’ ▪ At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was the last great despotism in Europe and the most conservative of the Great powers. ▪ After 1789, Russia remained autocratic, economically backward and mostly isolated from the rest of Europe. ▪ Russia was a huge and diverse empire covering a sixth of the land surface of the globe; dominated by Russians but containing hundreds of other nationalities as Slavic peoples like Ukrainians and poles as well as non-Slavic Europeans such as Finns and Latvians and Turkic Muslims of central Asia. ▪ Russian state centred in Kiev first emerged in the 19th century. ▪ The state and the Orthodox Church were closely intertwined. ▪ Russian Rulers who took the title ‘TSAR’ were the head of both the state and Russian Orthodox Church. ( unrestrained autocracy) ▪ Moscow claimed the title of the third Rome, the last dynasty of the tsars called the Romanovs ruled from 1613 until 1917. Russia conditions politically and economically ▪ Politically ▪ No Local governments existed until the 1860s, and no national representative institutions until 1905. ▪ The government prohibited political parties and kept dissent in check through system of censorship. ▪ Pervasive secret police. ▪ Internal passport system restricted people’s movement around the country. ▪ Russia in 1900 was like France in 1780 (before French revolution. Economically ▪ Russia was still feudal economy decades after feudalism had mostly disappeared from the rest of Europe. ▪ In 1900, peasants made up 90% of the population and 2/3 of population were illiterate. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 54 ▪ The industrial revolution did not take hold in Russia until the end of the 19th century. Hints of change and reform The First Russian Revolution ‘Decembrist revolt’ 1825 ▪ In 1825, a group of former Russian military officers exposed to western liberalism and grown discontented with their country government and mounted an anti-tsarist revolt (Revolt against tsar) but it failed. TSAR Alexander II ‘Tsar Liberator’ (top down change) ▪ The most important changes of the century came from the top down rather than from revolution as it came from TSAR Alexander ii known as the ‘TSAR liberator’ who launched a series of liberalizing reforms such as liberation of serfs, but he was assassinated in 1881. ▪ His successors returned to more autocratic rule. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 55 The conditions of Russian People: ▪ Many peasants were worse off economically after the emancipation and many migrated to the cities in search of work. This encouraged both urbanization and industrialization. ▪ The social fabric of Russia began to change too with the growth of an urban working class (The proletariat), new industrial entrepreneurs (the bourgeoisie) and an emerging middle class. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 56 1905: Russo-Japanese war and insurrection in Russia ▪ Russia suffered a humiliating loss in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905. ▪ It was the first time in modern history that an Asian one defeated a European power. Insurrection against the autocracy (The Tsar) during the war ▪ It began with a large but a peaceful demonstration in January 1905 led by an orthodox priest named father Gabon, in front of the Tsar palace. ▪ Bloody Sunday: Guards fired on the protestors, killing hundreds. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 57 The Tsar Nicholas II‘s reaction ▪ He issued a conciliatory manifesto allowing the formation of an elected legislature (the Duma), and by the end of the year the revolutionary movement ended. ▪ The Duma was the first national representative institution in Russian history. ▪ The reign of Nicholas II was a period of much change and development in Russian society. Post 1905: the Increasing tensions ▪ After 1905, more freedom of expression was permitted in politics and arts. ▪ but the more open environment revealed tensions ;including increasing pressures from political liberals and revolutionaries , and increasingly assertive nationalism from poles , Ukrainians , Latvians , Armenians and the Turkic peoples of central Asia. ▪ The Twin Forces that would finally topple the empire were; Marxism-Leninism WWI 1- Marxism and Leninism ▪ Marxist ideology of communism was revived not in an advanced capitalist state but in Russia, the least developed of the major European powers. ▪ Why the ideology of Marxism appealed for a number of reasons to people working for fundamental change in the Russian empire? ▪ Many Russian radicals liked the Marxist focus on urban workers, the proletariat. ▪ Marxism had the potential to make Russia more modern and enlightened. ▪ Marxist theory helped to explain Russia’s backwardness as a part of historical development, not as a flaw in the Russian character. ▪ Marxism had some advantages tactically because the Russian regime and secret police thought it was harmless. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 58 The Marxist social democratic labour party in 1898 ▪ Russian radicals living outside Russia formed it, and then it was split into two factions. 1) The Bolsheviks (majority): pressing for a quick revolution In Russia. Lenin who in 1917 would seize power in the Russian revolution led it. 2) The Mensheviks (minority): They argued for a more gradual approach. Vladimir Lenin ▪ For Lenin and other Russian Marxists, the Russian situation posed somewhat of a dilemma and a challenge. 1) Lenin saw that it was necessary to create a head of the proletariat. The Bolsheviks would play this role. 2) The other dilemma was the undeveloped state of Russian capitalism. 3) Lenin saw that once the Russians established their revolutionary state, would fulfil Marx‘s vision. ▪ Few people in Russia paid much attention to the Bolsheviks, and when the 1905 revolution broke out the Bolsheviks were hardly involved. ▪ Leaders of Soviet Union referred to their communist ideology in later years as Marxism-Leninism. 2- WWI & the two revolutions ▪ Russia conditions during the WWI ▪ By the Beginning of 1917, both the military and the country were near collapse as soldiers were undersupplied. ▪ In March, bread riots, strikes and demonstrations shook the capital city of St. Petersburg. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 59 ▪ Tsar Nicholas was forced to resign. ▪ Three hundred years of Romanov rule has come to end. ▪ After the resignation of Tsar Nicholas II ‘The provisional government versus The Petrograd soviet’ ▪ A provisional government established by the Duma promised to form a constitutional government but they had not withdrawn Russia from the war. ▪ Workers and soldiers had established alternative governing bodies called soviets (councils). ‘ The Petrograd soviets ‘ ▪ The Powers in Russia after Nicholas Resignation The Provisional The Petrograd Government Soviet The effect of Lenin return from exile ▪ In April 1917, Lenin returned from exile, promised ‘Peace, land and bread’ and called for ‘Power to all soviets ‘directly confronting provisional government. ▪ On seventh of November 1917, Bolsheviks and their supporters in the Petrograd soviet occupied the winter palace, disbanded the provisional government and seized power. ▪ Lenin moved quickly to consolidate power; to remove or neutralize rival parties. The Bolsheviks were renamed the communist party. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 60 The withdrawal of Russia from the WWI ▪ The new regime opened new negotiations with Germany to end Russia’s involvement in the war signing the treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. ▪ Russia had to concede most of Germany territorial demands, losing a quarter of its pre-war population and ¾ of its iron and steel producing areas. Challenges to Russia after the withdrawal of WWI 1) Groups opposing Bolsheviks ▪ Groups opposing the Bolsheviks, organized to resist the new government causing a devastating civil war that lasted four years. ▪ The Bolsheviks executed the Tsar Nicholas and his family in 1918. 2) The newly formed government of Poland ‘The Polish soviet war’ ▪ The newly formed government of Poland moved into areas vacated by Germans and clashed with the Russians. ▪ The polish soviet war raged for 20 months, until Lenin finally sued for peace. 3) The nationalities declaring its independence from Russian empire ▪ Other nationalities that had been part of the Russian empire were declaring independence, in Ukraine, Finland, Caucasus and the Baltics. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 61 Fixing the challenges faced by the new regime The New economic Policy (NEP) ▪ Lenin called a truce on the domestic front as well, announcing a new economic policy. - The Union of Soviet Socialist republics (USSR or soviet Union) ▪ In 1922, the communists established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; consisting initially of Russia, Byelorussia, Ukraine and the Caucasus but over the years expanding to include 15 republics. ▪ In 1924, the supreme soviet of the USSR formally adopted a constitution, declaring the founding of the USSR. Stalin and Totalitarianism ▪ The Five year plan launched in 1928 ▪ It focused on a rapid industrialization of the soviet economy and collectivization of agriculture. ▪ By 1937, all land had been collectivized, but millions died of starvation or were sent to force labour camps in Siberia. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 62 ▪ Stalin‘s larger goal was transformation of the soviet Union from an agricultural country to an industrial power. ▪ The Great Purge ▪ Stalin carried out the great purge to root out all potential sources of opposition to him and to the party (Trial, NKVD, execution). ▪ Russian Orthodox Church was subordinated to the state and most churches and monasteries were closed or destroyed. ▪ The Stalin Regime ▪ Stalin regime had total control over the economy, media, church, education and even people’s private lives leading to the designation of Stalin Soviet Union as a totalitarian state. The consequences of Russian Revolution The Positive effect of Russian revolution ▪ There was virtually unemployment in the USSR, and because of that no hard care poverty. Health care and education were free, and housing, food, and mass transit were heavily subsidized by the state. ▪ The differences between the rich and poor were far fewer than in capitalist countries. The Negative effect of Russian revolution ▪ The soviet political system remained throughout its history a single party state, brooking no political competition, protest activity or independent press. People who dared challenge the regime or its policies were subject to arrest and possibly death in the Stalinist era.. People had little choice about where they worked or lived. The legacy of Russian Revolution (Its effect on other countries) ▪ Russia helped establish communist parties and encourage revolutionary movements all over the world including the communist party of china who won power in china in 1949. ▪ The soviet army managed to liberate Eastern Europe from the Germans and to seize Berlin and force German surrender in 1945. ▪ Later, Russia became a great global power, challenging the US. ( The cold war) History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 63 ▪ Soviet Union and its economic successes became a model for leftists, anti- imperialists and revolutionaries all over the third world. ▪ By the 1970s, almost half of the world’s population was living under governments inspired or supported by the communists of Russia. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 64 Unit (9) World War II History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 65 The Road to WWII )Inter war Period) a. The Fall of Old empires: 1- The Old Habsburg Empire - Post the Paris treaties 1919 -1920; the old Hapsburg Empire was divided into the new states of Austria، Hungary، Czechoslovakia، and Yugoslavia. 2 -The Old Russian Empire - The new states of Poland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were carved from the Old Russian Empire. - All of them adopted written constitutions with legislatures elected through universal suffrage. - The emergence of communist Russia under leadership of Lenin then Stalin 3 -The Ottoman Empire - A nationalistrevolution led by Mustapha Kemal Ataturk). He abolished sultanate and caliphate and established a secular democratic republic of Turkey. B. USA back to Isolationism - Woodrow Wilson had brought the US into WWI to make the world safe for democracy and his fourteen points called for national self-determination and democratic politics in central Europe. - After WWI, USA retreated into isolationism, neutrality or pacifism. C. Germany after WWI and Versailles treaty: - In the city of Weimar ,a German national assembly adopted a constitution establishing a democratic republic ,the Weimar republic. - Germany was reconstituted as a democratic republic but it was forced to accept the terms of the Versailles treaty. - The Versailles treaty not only assigned Germany responsibility for WWI and imposed reparation payment on the new government but also reduced the size of the country by restoring independent Austria and returning Alsace Lorraine to France. - German colonies became under League of Nations control as mandates and limited German army and armaments. - For Germans ,the humiliation of all these provisions was compounded by the History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 66 - Reparations payments ,which eventually were set at the equivalent of 33 billion dollars. D. Fixing the conditions of Germany ✓ The Dawes Plan: - It is a plan developed by an American board of experts, provided for a reduction in reparations payments, stabilization of German finances and the facilitation of German borrowing abroad. - The following years saw a period of economic growth and relative stability in both Germany and the rest of Europe. - The League of Nations: Germany was allowed to enter the League of Nations in 1926. E. challenge to peace ✓ The Kellogg – Briand Pact: - In 1928, it was developed by American and French Foreign ministers and signed by sixty-five countries. - It renounced war as instrument as instrument of policy. F. Worldwide depression‘ The Great Depression’ - In 1929, USA stock market crashed leading quickly to worldwide depression - 5000 banks closed and many companies went bankrupt. - USA investments ceased and USA trade declined, undercutting the revival of Germany and much of Europe. - Germany was particularly hit hard, suffering more from depression than any other country in Europe. - Unemployment increases and people began looking for economic security. G. The Rise of The Totalitarian regimes: - Bolshevik regime in Russia since 1917: the Communist regime. - Fascist regime in Italy 1922: Mussolini and the establishment of Fascist Party. - Nazi regime in Germany (1933- 1945): Third Reich. - Hitler, Nazi Party, and the idea of the superiority of German nation. - Franco regime and a civil war in Spain 1936-1939. Hitler 's aggressions: - Hitler had gained support by condemning Versailles treaty and calling for a restoration of German honor, pride, power and the recovery of lost German Territories. - In 1933, He pulled Germany out of League of Nations and denounced the disarmament negotiations that were under way. - In 1935, He began rearming Germany contrary to the provisions of Versailles and had introduced compulsory military service. - The League of Nations reaction: it censured Germany but took no other action. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 67 - In 1936 Hitler moved German troops into the Rhineland which was an area demilitarized by the Versailles treaty. ✓ A mutual defense and assistance treaties : Hitler signed a mutual defense and assistance treaties with Italy (Rome-Berlin axis) and with the military government in Germany. ✓ The Spanish civil war in 1936-1939: Hitler and Mussolini cooperated in assisting Franco providing a testing ground for their troops and weapons. ❖ bringing all Germans into the greater German Reich 1- Merging Austria - In March 1938, German troops marched into Austria and announced the merge of Austria with Germany. - The annexation of Austria had added six million Germans to the German Reich - The League of Nations and western powers ’response :They did not response, as there was a sentiment that there was some justification to Germany’s nationalist claims. 2- Invading Czechoslovakia - Hitler wanted to merge three million Germans living in the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia - The governments of France ,England and the Soviet Union response :They issued warnings to Hitler. ✓ The Munich conference in September 1938 - Its parties :Hitler – Prime minister of England Neville chamberlain ,Prime minister of France Eduard Daladier – Mussolini. - The resulting agreement :The four Powers renounced war on each other ,give up Sudetenland to Hitler and guaranteed the territorial integrity of the rest of Czechoslovakia - The effect of the agreement :after 6 months ,Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia. ❖ Hitler‘ s aggression against Jews (before and during WWII) The Holocaust - There was a Nazi Policy to exterminate the Jews - At first ,there was policy of Hitler‘s government to encourage Germany‘s 600 thousand Jews to leave country rather than killing them. ✓ The 1935 Nuremberg laws they identified Jews as subjects but not citizens banned them from professions. ✓ 1938 t h e night of broken glass Nazi storm troopers smashed Jewish shops , beat up thousands of Jewsand sent tens of thousands to concentration camps ✓ 1941: The actual slaughter of Jews ‘ The Holocaust’ History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 68 - It began with the mass killings of Jews in German occupied soviet territory in 1941. - Nazi leadership decided the‘ final solution of the Jewish question‘ to be taken in form of annihilation ✓ -In early 1942: decisions were taken to establish death camps to organize the systematic transport of Jewsfrom all over Europe to these camps. ✓ The Jews claim that six million Jews perished in these camps ,perhaps 2/3of Jews of Europe. Pre WWII -Alliances &Pacts - 1936 :GERMANY + Italy: “Berlin- Rome” axis: - 1936 :Germany +Japan axis - Hitler assisted Franco in Spain - Germany+USSR 1939-1941: Non-aggression and friendship pact. - USA Policy: isolationism & non-interventionism until 1941. - British policy: Appeasement (PM: Chamberlin) until 1939. - Then in 1940: Churchill replaced Chamberlin. 1- The appeasement of aggression - The names Chamberlain and Munich have been associated with the appeasement of aggression ,but in 1938, none of the major powers was prepared to confront Hitler militarily. 2- Western alliances against Germany - An alliance of England or France with Russia was impossible because of western distrust of the communists of the Soviet Union. 3- The League of Nations - The replacement for the balance of power by the League of Nations had already proved ineffectual in countering the military aggression of Japan ,Italy and Germany. 4- non-aggression and Friendship pact in 1939 Its Parties :The soviet Leader Joseph Stalin and Hitler History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 69 The agreement :This agreement was Public but in a secret protocol ,the Germans and the soviets agreed to divide Poland between them in the event of war The end of the Pact by Hitler and outbreak of the war The Germans invaded Poland with a massive army of over one million troops after signing the pact by one week. Parties of World War II: The Allies The Axis Powers France Germany Great Britain Italy United States Japan Soviet Union WWII: ✓ The German attacks on Poland - In September 1939, The German attack on Poland employed the new military tactic which is lightning warfare using massive amounts of work force, airpower and armour to achieve rapid annihilation of the enemy. - Poland fell within a month. ✓ Britain and France reaction - They immediately declared war on Germany as for the second time in a generation Europe was at a war. ✓ Hitler Invasions and The French surrender - in 1940 Nazi troops invaded Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg and France, forcing a French surrender within six weeks ✓ Hitler and Britain - In summer 1940, England was the only country that remained at war with Germany. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 70 - Winston Churchill had replaced Neville Chamberlain a prime minister, promising nothing but blood, toil, tears and sweat.’ - Hitler launched an air campaign against Britain with bombing raids on London, but the British Royal force was able to prevent German supremacy in the air. ✓ Hitler and The Soviet Union - Hitler shifted his attention to the soviet Union، which from the beginning he had intended to invade and occupy. ✓ Operation Barbarossa: the military assault on the soviet was launched on June 22 1941. - For the next 3 years until the allied invasion of the mainland of Italy in September 1943 and France in 1944, the struggle between Germany and Soviet Union was the real fighting in European theatre. ✓ Battle of Stalingrad 1942 -1943: There was a turning victory to the soviets over Germany. Towards The victory of allies and the end of WWII - After Stalingrad, soviets made steady gains pushing Germans out of the soviet republics of Ukraine and Byelorussia then advancing head on through Poland. - Soviet forces moved southwest into Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary, meanwhile in June 1944 Normandy invasion which contained British , US and Canadian forces which had crossed the Rhine river in 1945 into German territory - Hitler committed suicide and the German government surrendered in May 1945. - European war was over but continued in the pacific theatre against Japan until the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki forced a Japanese surrender in August 1945.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AUXIuYHFgBE The consequences of WWII - Victors (victorious allies) versus Losers (defeated axis). - Civilian deaths & military causalities as well - Structure of international system has been changed. - Multipolarity and balance of power has been ended and bipolarity has been started. - Use of the nuclear weapons for the first time. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 71 - Complete destruction of European continent. - Divided Germany into four parts. - Divided Europe into two parts. Eastern was controlled by USSR and western by USA. - End of the multipolar system and beginning of the bipolar system. - Establishment of the United Nations. Important Note The Structure of the International system: Before World War II After World War II Multipolar system Bi Polar system USA-USSR History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 72 Unit (10) Cold War Era This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY- SA History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 73 Cold War Era Phases of the bi polar system 1945-1991: 1- The Cold War 1946-1956 2- Peaceful Coexistence 1956-1969 3- Détente 1969-1979 4- New Cold War 1979-1985 5- The end of the Cold War 1985-1991 First Phase: The Cold War 1946- 1956: - The Grand Alliance formed by the U.S., USSR and the UK in World War II managed to defeat European fascism and Japanese expansionism, but began to dissolve. - Yalta Agreements. The provision concerning the post–WWII order in Europe signed by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin in 1945, in the Soviet resort town of Yalta. - Cold War. The term used to describe the war like state of tension between the Soviet Union and USA from the end of WWII until the collapse of communism in 1989– 1991. - Cold War began a long period of rivalry which determined international relations for almost half a century on the political, economic, and military and propaganda fronts. - There was no direct military confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers: USA and the USSR (Deterrence). Such a conflict would have led to a nuclear holocaust on the planet. - Weapons did not defeat the USSR, but the ineffectiveness of its economic system and the lack of political freedoms. ❖ Divided Europe: - USA was capitalist and the USSR was communist. Both of them believed their way of life was better and feared the other way of life. - Europe was divided between the democratic west (Free Europe) and countries occupied by the Soviet Union in the East (Communist Europe). - 1945-1948: Communist regimes established by Soviet Union in Eastern Europe. ❖ Germany: - Division of Germany. In 1949, Federal Republic of Germany, in the western zones, and German Democratic Republic in the Soviet zone, were established. Henceforth, throughout the Cold War, there existed two Germanys, one a democratic and capitalist, the other a Soviet-style communist dictatorship. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 74 - Berlin airlift: The yearlong airlift of supplies by USA to West Berlin, begun in 1948 after USSR blocked access to West Berlin from Western Germany; a key element in the beginning of the Cold War. - Berlin Wall: A wall built in 1961 by USA dividing Soviet controlled East Berlin from Western-controlled West Berlin, to prohibit Easterners from escaping to the West through West Berlin. Dismantled in November 1989. ❖ USA Containment: - American policy towards USSR was “Containment”: USA believed the USSR wanted to make the world communist and so it was suspicious of spreading communism. - Truman Doctrine: a policy of "containment of This Photo by Unknown Author is communism" to prevent its expansion. American President Truman announced the US would support countries needing protection from threats inside/outside their border. He meant the US would protect countries threatened by communism. (Greece was at risk of turning communist). Marshall Plan 1947: - Announced by US Secretary of State, George Marshall. - Officially called the “European Recovery Plan.” - A large-scale U.S. aid program to Western Europe from 1947 to 1952 to help rebuild the economies crushed by WWII. - Aid was in the form of cash, machinery, food, technology. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization: - A regional mutual defense alliance formed by USA in 1949 to block the threat of Soviet military aggression in Europe. Its membership expanded and its mission changed after the collapse of communism in 1989–1991. - NATO was a defensive alliance meaning if one member were attacked; all other members would defend it. However, its main purpose was to prevent Soviet expansion. - Why formed? Mainly because of Berlin Blockade & Airlift 1948-49: Stalin blockaded all routes by road, rail and canal to West Berlin to try to force the Allies out of Berlin. It led to the official division of Germany: GDR (East Germany) and FGR (West Germany). - Therefore, the Berlin Crisis triggered the formation of NATO as the Berlin Blockade highlighted the Soviet threat to Western Europe. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 75 ❖ “Iron Curtain”: (Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe) Cominform & Comecon Cominform: - It was created in 1947 by Stalin to spread communism protect communist states from US aggression. - It was a response to Truman Doctrine &Marshall Plan. - It gave orders to the communist parties of other countries. - In 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform because its leader, Tito, would not follow Stalin’s wishes. Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance): - An organization created by Moscow in 1949 to coordinate trade and integrate the economies of the Eastern European communist states. Dissolved in 1991. - It was also known as “The Molotov Plan”. - Comecon was the Soviet response to the Marshall Plan. - Cominform &Comecon also strengthened the division of Europe between those in Cominform, controlled by USSR and those that were free. ❖ The Warsaw Pact 1955: - Soviet bloc: The alliance of communist states in Eastern Europe during the Cold War dominated by USSR. - Soviet Union: The shorthand name for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - The Warsaw Pact: The Warsaw Treaty Organization, the Cold War military alliance of communist states in Eastern Europe, dominated by the Soviet Union; established in 1955 and dissolved in 1991. - It was a military alliance for mutual defense, which USSR signed along with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, East Germany and Albania. - Although Yugoslavia became communist, it was not controlled by USSR. - 1956: Uprisings in Poland and Hungary crushed by USSR. ❖ Korean War 1950-53 a global dimension of cold war rivalry - Between 1950 and 1953, there was a war between North Korea and South Korea. - The North was communist and the South was anti-communist. - Before 1950, America did not see Korea as in its “sphere of interest”. However, after China became communist in 1949, the USA became determined to contain communism in Asia (domino theory). History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 76 - It led to the formation of SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization) in 1954. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxaegqvl4aE ❖ Communist China 1949 a global dimension of cold war rivalry - The Cold War moved to Asia. - The victory of Mao Zedong's communist forces led to the proclamation in October 1949 of the Republic of China. - The world's most populous country joined the communist bloc This Photo by Unknown Author is Second Phase: The Peaceful Coexistence (1956-1969) - Stalin died in 1953. After Stalin’s death, there was an improvement in relations. This became known as a “thaw‟ in the Cold War. - Khrushchev was in power. He criticized Stalin policies and began to reform the Soviet Union (destalinization). - He spoke about peaceful coexistence and said that the USSR had to live in peace with the USA. - Peaceful coexistence did not mean Khrushchev would allow the security of the Soviet Union to be threatened. - Khrushchev was committed to maintaining the security of the communist states that surrounded the Soviet Union and the Soviet Union itself. For example ; - Crushed the Hungarian Uprising in 1956. - Continued the arms race & space race. - Built the Berlin Wall in 1961. - Challenged the security of USA in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962; Fidel Castro had overthrown the pro- American government in Cuba and had announced he was a communist in 1961 following the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion by Cuban exiles “supported by USA, to overthrow Castro.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XbKCyQn5oTc&pp=ygUUQ3ViYW4gbW lzc2lsZSBjcmlzaXM%3D This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY- SA History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 77 ❖ Non alignment movement: - During peaceful coexistence period - An organization of countries not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc, formed in 1961 as a reaction against the Cold War, and now including over one hundred members. - Formed by the newly independent countries in Africa and Asia like Egypt, India. - Not to join any of the two blocs. - Not to join any military alliance with any bloc. - Not to allow the establishment of military bases on their territories. - Decolonization: The process by which the colonies of the European - Empires gained their political independence, occurring mostly in the twentieth century and especially after WWII. ❖ Czechoslovakia “Prague Spring” 1968 - In 1968, Dubcek became leader of Czechoslovakia and tried to make communism more Democratic. He called it “socialism with a human face” and his changes were referred to as the “Prague Spring”. However, Brezhnev responded to these changes by invading Czechoslovakia. - Dubcek was removed from power and replaced by Husak who withdrew the reforms of the Prague Spring. - Prague Spring threatened the security of USSR because they would lead to demands for change in other satellite states and possible demands to leave the Warsaw Pact. Thus, creating a gap in the Iron Curtain. - Soviet security was dependent on maintaining tight control over its satellite states. - USA had welcomed Dubcek's reforms but did not intervene to help. - If USA had intervened, USSR may have declared war on USA. Third Phase: The Détente 1969-1979: - Détente refers to; a period of reducing tension between the USA and USSR. - East–West détente; improvement of U.S.–Soviet relations, arms-control agreements. - Kennedy and Khrushchev decided to start a more systematic and enduring policy of détente. - It occurred after Cuban Missile Crisis. History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 78 During détente USA and USSR tried to reduce tension by ; 1- Setting up a Hot line in 1963 between the White House and Kremlin. 2- Limiting the Arms Race; (NPT “Non- Proliferation Treaty” 1968 by the U.S., the USSR, and the United Kingdom. 3- Salt I (Strategic Arms Limitation) Agreement 1972 that limited the number of intercontinental missiles that USSR and USA could own. 4- Helsinki accords 1975. 5- Recognizing the borders of Europe. 6- Trading with each other. ❖ Hot line between USA and USSR Reasons for establishing a hot line between USA and USSR - The establishment of the hotline to the Kremlin came in the wake of the October 1962 Cuban missile crisis, in which the U.S. and U.S.S.R had come dangerously close to all-out nuclear war - Although Kennedy and Khrushchev were able to resolve the crisis peacefully, fears of future “misunderstandings” led to the installation of an improved communications system. ‘Hot Line ’ - In 1967, President Johnson became the first U.S. president to use the new system during the Six Day War in the Middle East when he notified that USSR considering sending Air Force planes into the Mediterranean. ❖ NPT “Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968 - Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, agreement of July 1st 1968, signed by USA, USSR and United Kingdom, which possessed nuclear weapons and agreed not to assist other states in obtaining or producing them. - The treaty became effective in March 1970 and was to remain so for a 25-year period. - This treaty aimed to reduce the Arm race between USA and USSR, especially after the Cuban missile crisis. - Strategic Arms Limitation Agreement ‘SALT I ‘1972 - Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) are negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union that were aimed at limiting the manufacturing of strategic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. - The first agreements, known as SALT I in 1972 and SALT II in 1979; - U.S. Pres. first suggested it. Johnson in 1967; History of International Politics Dr. Safaa Saber 79 The Reason of SALT I agreement 1972 ; - It was intended to restrain the arms race in strategic (long-range or intercontinental) missiles armed with nuclear weapons especially after Cuban crisis 1962. ❖ Helsinki accords 1975 - The governments of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in 1975 signed Helsinki accords. - These documents were the result of a long process of negotiations among thirty-five states in Europe plus the US and Canada, contained a whole section on “respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief.’ The effect of Helsinki accords 1975 - The intellectuals of USSR and Eastern Europe f