Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931-41) - History Midterm AI PDF

Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931--41) ========================================== **1. Pre-1931 Context** - **Twenty-One Demands (1915)**: - Japan issued the Twenty-One Demands to China, seeking to extend its economic and political control. - Demands included privileges...

Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931--41) ========================================== **1. Pre-1931 Context** - **Twenty-One Demands (1915)**: - Japan issued the Twenty-One Demands to China, seeking to extend its economic and political control. - Demands included privileges in Manchuria, control over Chinese resources, and influence in Chinese governance. - **International Reaction**: The U.S. and Britain opposed the demands, viewing them as an overreach of Japanese power. - **Rice Riots (1918)**: - Widespread protests caused by inflation and rice shortages during WWI. - Highlighted domestic instability and the failure of the civilian government to address economic grievances. - Resulted in increased military influence in politics, as the public grew disillusioned with civilian leaders. **2. Causes of Japanese Expansion (1868--1930)** - **Economic Needs**: - Industrial production nearly tripled from 1914 to 1929. - Trade deficits grew significantly during the 1920s, with the Great Depression exacerbating economic struggles. - Military spending surged, accounting for over 30% of the national budget by the 1930s. - The **Zaibatsu** (large business conglomerates) influenced expansion policy, seeking new markets and resources to sustain industrial growth. - **Nationalism and Militarism**: - Ultra-nationalist ideologies emphasized Japan's divine destiny to lead Asia. - The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere presented Japan as liberating Asia from Western domination but aimed to justify imperial control. - **Washington Naval Conference (1921--22)**: - Japan agreed to naval limitations (5:5:3 ratio with the U.S. and Britain), which caused resentment among nationalists and militarists. - Led to a desire for self-sufficiency through territorial expansion. **3. Manchurian Incident and the Invasion of Manchuria (1931--1932)** - **Causes**: - Economic hardship from the Great Depression reduced Japanese exports, prompting expansion to secure resources and markets. - The Guandong Army staged the Mukden Incident (1931), using it as a pretext to invade Manchuria. - Manchuria's natural resources (coal, iron, soybeans) were vital to Japan's economy. - **Effects**: - Establishment of the puppet state **Manchukuo** in 1932. - Rise of military dominance in Japanese politics, sidelining civilian government. - Worsened Japan's relations with Western powers and China. - **Responses**: - **League of Nations**: The Lytton Commission identified Japan as the aggressor, but no effective sanctions were imposed. - Japan withdrew from the League (1933), weakening collective security efforts. - China appealed for international support but received limited aid due to global economic challenges. **4. Military Influence** - **Concept of \"Gekokujo\"**: - Refers to insubordination by junior officers, often acting independently to pursue aggressive expansionist policies. - Reflected the growing fragmentation and radicalization within the Japanese military. - **February 26 Incident (1936)**: - A coup attempt by young military officers who sought to overthrow the civilian government and install a military dictatorship. - Though suppressed, it further demonstrated the military's increasing influence over political decisions. **5. Second Sino-Japanese War (1937--41)** - **Causes**: - Escalation after the **Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937)**, where clashes led to full-scale war. - Japan sought dominance over China's markets and resources. - Failure of the League of Nations and Western powers to counter Japan's earlier aggression encouraged expansion. - **Effects on Civilians**: - Widespread atrocities, such as the **Nanjing Massacre (1937)**, where up to 300,000 civilians were killed. - Displacement of millions of Chinese civilians due to Japanese advances. - Destruction of infrastructure and economic disruption in occupied territories. - **Responses**: - **U.S. Quarantine Speech (1937)**: Roosevelt condemned Japan but avoided direct intervention. - Soviet Union provided limited support to China. - Western-powers imposed embargoes on Japan but avoided military confrontation. **6. Expansion into Southeast Asia and Pearl Harbor (1940--41)** - **Causes**: - Economic embargoes by the U.S. and Britain (1940--41), including cutting off oil exports. - Formation of the **Tripartite Pact (1940)** aligned Japan with Germany and Italy. - Japan's occupation of French Indochina (1940) expanded its strategic reach. - **Economic Impact of Sanctions**: - Oil imports fell by 90%, severely affecting Japan's industrial and military capacity. - Shortages in steel and other materials hampered Japan's war efforts. - Increased urgency to secure resources in Southeast Asia, leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor. - **Effects**: - Heightened tensions with the U.S. and Britain. - Attack on **Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)** brought the U.S. into WWII. - Escalation into a global conflict as Japan targeted Southeast Asia and Pacific territories. - **Responses**: - U.S.: Imposed sanctions, froze Japanese assets, and delivered the **Hull Note (1941)** demanding Japan withdraw from China and Indochina. - Declaration of war by the U.S. and Allied powers after Pearl Harbor. Italian Expansion under Mussolini (1933--40) ============================================ **1. Economic Context** - **Depression and Economic Struggles**: - Industrial production fell by 25% during the Great Depression. - Unemployment rates soared to 20% in the early 1930s. - The Abyssinian campaign cost Italy approximately 40 billion lire, further straining its economy. **2. Invasion of Abyssinia (1935--36)** - **Causes**: - Mussolini's desire to create a Mediterranean empire and restore Italy's status as a great power. - Economic motivations: Access to raw materials and a distraction from domestic issues during the Great Depression. - Belief that the League's failure to act decisively in Manchuria set a precedent. - **Effects**: - Italy's brutal conquest involved chemical weapons and atrocities. - Strengthened Mussolini's domestic popularity temporarily. - Diplomatic isolation from Britain and France. - **Responses**: - **Stresa Front (1935)**: Agreement between Italy, Britain, and France to oppose German rearmament. Collapsed due to Britain and France's weak opposition to Italy's actions. - **League of Nations**: Imposed sanctions but excluded vital resources like coal and oil, rendering them ineffective. - Italy aligned with Germany, forming the **Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)**. **3. Colonial Administration** - **Abyssinia (Ethiopia)**: - Italy exploited Abyssinia's resources, focusing on agriculture and infrastructure projects that primarily benefited settlers. - Harsh policies, including forced labor and violent suppression of resistance movements, alienated the local population. **4. Military Capabilities** - **Comparative Strength**: - Italy's military lagged behind other major powers in terms of equipment and strategy. - Modernization efforts were inconsistent, with outdated tanks and aircraft. - Italy's industrial capacity for sustained war was insufficient, leading to reliance on Germany during WWII. - **Military Casualties**: - Abyssinian Campaign: Estimated 10,000 Italian casualties. - Spanish Civil War: Over 4,000 Italian troops killed supporting Franco. - Greek Campaign: Italy suffered approximately 13,000 casualties due to poor planning and fierce resistance. **5. Involvement in the Spanish Civil War (1936--39)** - **Causes**: - Support for Franco's Nationalists to expand Fascism and counter Communism. - Desire to demonstrate Italy's military strength and align with Germany. - **Effects**: - Military strain on Italy's economy. - Strengthened ties with Nazi Germany. - Contributed to international polarization. - **Responses**: - Britain and France pursued non-intervention but failed to stop material support from Italy and Germany. - The Soviet Union supported the Republicans, further escalating tensions. **6. Expansion in Europe (1939--40)** - **Causes**: - Mussolini's ambition to dominate the Mediterranean and Balkans. - A desire to fulfill territorial promises from WWI (e.g., Dalmatian coast). - **Effects on Italian Society**: - War campaigns drained resources and worsened economic instability. - Public discontent grew as soldiers returned with reports of heavy casualties and failed campaigns. - Increased political polarization, with opposition to Fascism gaining traction. - **Responses**: - Britain and France opposed Italian aggression but prioritized countering Germany. - Italy's entry into WWII as a member of the Axis (1940) deepened its reliance on Germany. **7. Anglo-Italian Agreement (1938)** - Signed to normalize relations between Britain and Italy after Abyssinia. - Britain recognized Italian control over Abyssinia in exchange for assurances about Mediterranean stability. - Highlighted Britain's policy of appeasement but failed to prevent Italy's alignment with Germany. **Summary Chart for Paper 1** **Event** **Causes** **Effects** **Responses** ----------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- **Japanese Expansion (1931--41)** Economic needs, nationalism, militarism, weak League Manchukuo, Second Sino-Japanese War, Pearl Harbor Ineffective League, U.S. sanctions, Allied intervention **Italian Expansion (1933--40)** Fascist ideology, economic issues, Versailles dissatisfaction Abyssinia invasion, Rome-Berlin Axis, WWII entry Ineffective League, appeasement, Allied opposition