Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931-1941)

Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931-1941)

• Japan issued the Twenty-One Demands (1915) to China, seeking economic and political control, including privileges in Manchuria, control of resources, and influence in governance.
• International opposition to the demands came from the U.S. and Britain.
• Rice Riots (1918) protested inflation and rice shortages caused by World War I.
• The riots highlighted domestic instability, and the civilian government's inability to address economic grievances, increasing military influence in politics.
• From 1914 to 1929, Japanese industrial production tripled.
• Trade deficits worsened during the 1920s, exacerbated by the Great Depression.
• Military spending in the 1930s made up over 30% of the national budget.
• Zaibatsu (large business conglomerates) influenced expansion policies, seeking new markets and resources.
• Ultra-nationalist ideologies emphasized Japan's leadership role in Asia.
• The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere presented Japan's justification for imperial control.
• The Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922) limited Japan's naval capabilities to a 5:5:3 ratio with the U.S. and Britain, leading to resentment within nationalist and militarist factions.

Manchurian Incident and the Invasion of Manchuria (1931-1932)

• Economic hardship from the Great Depression impacted Japanese exports, leading to a desire for resources and markets.
• The Guandong Army orchestrated the Mukden Incident (1931) as a pretext for invading Manchuria.
• Manchuria's abundant resources (coal, iron, soybeans) were economically vital to Japan.
• Manchukuo, a puppet state, was established in 1932.
• The military's influence in Japanese politics increased.
• Japan's relations with Western powers and China worsened.

League of Nations Response

• The Lytton Commission deemed Japan the aggressor but imposed no effective sanctions.
• Japan withdrew from the League in 1933.
• China appealed to the international community for assistance but received limited aid due to global economic challenges.

Military Influence

• "Gekokujo" refers to insubordination by junior officers pursuing aggressive expansionist policies.
• The escalating radicalization and fragmentation within the Japanese military is evident.
• The February 26 Incident (1936) demonstrated the military's growing influence over political decisions, though it was suppressed.

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1941)

• The Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937) escalated into a full-scale war.
• Japan sought dominance over China's markets and resources.
• Japan's earlier aggression and the failure of the international community to counter it spurred further expansion.
• The Nanjing Massacre (1937) resulted in the deaths of an estimated 300,000 civilians.
• Widespread atrocities and economic disruption in occupied territories caused displacement and suffering.
• The U.S. responded with a quarantine speech, but avoided direct intervention.
• Soviet Union provided limited support to China.
• Western powers imposed embargoes on Japan but avoided military confrontation.

Expansion into Southeast Asia and Pearl Harbor (1940-1941)

• Economic embargoes by the U.S. and Britain (1940-41), including the cessation of oil exports.
• Japan's occupation of French Indochina (1940) expanded its strategic reach.
• Oil shortages severely impacted Japan's industrial and military capacity, leading to urgency over securing resources in Southeast Asia and the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Italian Expansion under Mussolini (1933-1940)

• Economic struggles during the Great Depression hampered industrial production and increased unemployment in Italy.
• Mussolini's ambition to create a Mediterranean empire and restore Italy's status as a great power.
• Access to resources and a distraction from domestic problems were economic motivators.
• Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) was brutal and resulted in the use of chemical weapons and widespread atrocities.
• Italy gained temporary popularity domestically, but suffered diplomatic isolation from Britain and France.