History and Politics of European Integration PDF 2024

History and Politics of European Integration University of Udine, Master in Euroculture 2024-2026 Stefano Pilotto September – December 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The...

History and Politics of European Integration University of Udine, Master in Euroculture 2024-2026 Stefano Pilotto September – December 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The European Union today Stefano Pilotto, 2024  History and Politics of European Integration ▪ The beginning of the European integration process: from Jean Monnet to the Rome Treaties (1949 – 1957); ▪ The development of the European Communities from Rome Treaties to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1957 – 1989); ▪ The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the new opportunities between east and west in Europe: the Maastricht Treaty and the enlargement process (1989 – 2005); ▪ The failure of the European Constitution and the crisis of the European integration process (2005 – 2008); ▪ The world economic and financial crisis and the consequences for the European Integration Process (2008 – 2011); ▪ The Fiscal Compact agreement of 2012 and the difficulties to erase the europessimism (2011 – 2018); ▪ The crisis around the European Union: Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Isis, immigration (2011 – 2016); ▪ The new program of the EU Commission of Ursula von der Leyen: green deal and digital revolution (2019); ▪ Europe in front of the Coronavirus pandemic and the Next Generation EU (2020 – 2022); ▪ The conflict in Ukraine and the new cold war between the Western countries and the Russian Federation with the BRICS movement (2022 - 2024). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  History and Politics of European Integration ▪ The beginning of the European integration process: from Jean Monnet to the Rome Treaties (1949 – 1957); ▪ The development of the European Communities from Rome Treaties to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1957 – 1989); ▪ The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the new opportunities between east and west in Europe: the Maastricht Treaty and the enlargement process (1989 – 2005); ▪ The failure of the European Constitution and the crisis of the European integration process (2005 – 2008); ▪ The world economic and financial crisis and the consequences for the European Integration Process (2008 – 2011); ▪ The Fiscal Compact agreement of 2012 and the difficulties to erase the europessimism (2011 – 2018); ▪ The crisis around the European Union: Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Isis, immigration (2011 – 2016); ▪ The new program of the EU Commission of Ursula von der Leyen: green deal and digital revolution (2019); ▪ Europe in front of the Coronavirus pandemic and the Next Generation EU (2020 – 2022); ▪ The conflict in Ukraine and the new cold war between the Western countries and the Russian Federation with the BRICS movement (2022 - 2024). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe: cultural entity or simple geographic expression? (Federico Chabod, “History of the Idea of Europe”) Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (July 2024) Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (July 2024)  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (July 2024) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (April Stefano Pilotto, 2024 2024)  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2023) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Source: IMF World Economic Outlook (October 2021) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The maximum extension of the Roman Empire Stefano Pilotto, 2024 (98 A.D.-116 A.D.) Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Europe in 1815 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Europe in 1914 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Europe after the First World War (1923)  An example: the enormous reduction of Hungarian territory after First World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Europe during the first part of Second World War (1939-1942)  Europe’s new borders after World War II Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The huge transfer of populations in Europe after Secon World War, because of the change of the borders: Stefano Pilotto, 2024 20 millions Europeans changed their residence.  The Iron Curtain in Europe from Stettin to Trieste (Churchill’s speech in Fulton, Missouri, United States, 6th of March 1946) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Berlin after the Second World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Europe after 1945: the Cold War and the Iron Curtain  The European Union today Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The origins ▪ The Schuman Plan (9th of May 1950): ECSC; ▪ The Pleven Plan (24th of October 1950): EDC; ▪ The Conference of Messina (1st-2nd of June 1955); ▪ The Treaties of Rome (25th of March 1957): EEC and EURATOM; Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Schuman Plan (the 9th of May 1950) * Le gouvernement français propose de placer l’ensemble de la production franco-allemande de charbon et d’acier sous une Haute Autorité commune, dans une organisation ouverte à la participation des autres pays de l’Europe; * Par la mise en commun de production de base et l’institution d’une Haute Autorité nouvelle, dont les décisions lieront la France, l’Allemagne et les pays qui y adhéreront, cette proposition réalisera les premières assises concrètes d’une Fédération européenne indispensable à la préservation de la paix. Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Schuman Plan The Schuman Plan (the 9th of May 1950) Treaty establishing the European Community for Coal and Steel (ECCS): signed on the 18th of April 1951 (six countries joined the ECCS from the beginning: France, Italy Federal Republic of Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg). The Treaty entered into force on the 23rd of July 1952 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Pleven Plan (the 24th of October 1950) creation of an integrated European army, under common supranational bodies Treaty establishing the European Defense Community (EDC): signed on th 27th of May 1952 (the same six countries joined the EDC from the beginning: France, Italy Federal Republic of Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg). The article 38 of the Treaty foresaw the constitution of an ad hoc assembly, whose task would have been to study the way to accomplish a federal or confederal unification among the six countries Stefano Pilotto, 2024  but: * gaullist opposition; * communist opposition; * attenuation of the Cold War; * end of the Korean War; * French defeat in Indochina. 30th of August 1954: the Chamber of Deputies of France refused to ratify the treaty establishing the EDC Stop of the European Integration Process Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The recovery of the European Integration Process The Messina Conference (1st-2nd of June 1955) Creation of the Spaak Committee and renewal of the European Integration Process Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Rome Treaties The Rome Treaties (25th of March 1957) * Creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) * Creation of the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) (the same six countries joined the EEC and the Euratom from the beginning: France, Italy, Federal Republic of Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg); the target was to establish a common market in the field of all goods and services; the treaties entered into force on th 1st of January 1958 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  History and Politics of European Integration ▪ The beginning of the European integration process: from Jean Monnet to the Rome Treaties (1949 – 1957); ▪ The development of the European Communities from Rome Treaties to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1957 – 1989); ▪ The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the new opportunities between east and west in Europe: the Maastricht Treaty and the enlargement process (1989 – 2005); ▪ The failure of the European Constitution and the crisis of the European integration process (2005 – 2008); ▪ The world economic and financial crisis and the consequences for the European Integration Process (2008 – 2011); ▪ The Fiscal Compact agreement of 2012 and the difficulties to erase the europessimism (2011 – 2018); ▪ The crisis around the European Union: Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Isis, immigration (2011 – 2016); ▪ The new program of the EU Commission of Ursula von der Leyen: green deal and digital revolution (2019); ▪ Europe in front of the Coronavirus pandemic and the Next Generation EU (2020 – 2022); ▪ The conflict in Ukraine and the new cold war between the Western countries and the Russian Federation with the BRICS movement (2022 - 2023). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The evolution in the 60s, 70s and 80s ▪ The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) (30th of July 1962); ▪ The Treaty merging the executives of the three Communities (ECCS, EEC, Euratom) (8th of April 1965); ▪ The Compromise of Luxemburg (29th of January 1966); ▪ The first enlargement (1st of January 1973); ▪ The creation of the European Council (10th of December 1974); ▪ The creation of the European Monetary System (13th of March 1979); ▪ The second enlargement (1st of January 1981); ▪ The third enlargement (1st of January 1986); ▪ The Single European Act (17th of December 1985). Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1 DM = 1000 ITL ±2.25 % Stefano Pilotto, 2024  EU Enlargement ▪ The first enlargement: UK, Denmark and Ireland (1st of January 1973); ▪ The second enlargement: Greece (1st of January 1981); ▪ The third enlargement: Spain, Portugal (1st of January 1986); ▪ The fourth enlargement: Austria, Sweden, Finland (1st of January 1995); ▪ The fifth enlargement: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, Malta, Cyprus (1st of May 2004); ▪ The sixth enlargement: Romania, Bulgaria (1st of January 2007); ▪ The seventh enlargement: Croatia (1st of July 2013); ▪ 2021: Brexit, UK goes out! Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The enlargement process Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The European Monetary System Creation of the European Monetary System (13th of March 1979) Establishment of a monetary system, based on a European currency unit (ECU), to avoid big fluctuations in rates of exchange within the framework of European currencies: the fluctuation margin of bilateral parities is 2.25% (the “European monetary snake”, set up on the 10th of April 1972, had already pointed out such a rate) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Single European Act ▪ 17th-28th of February 1986: signature in Luxembourg and The Hague of the Single European Act; ▪ 1st of July 1987: the Single European Act enters into force; * establishment of a free circulation for the workers, for the capitals, for the goods and for the services inside of the European common market by the 1st of January 1993; * the European Economic Community becomes the European Community; * harmonization of foreign and security policy of European Community. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The way towards Maastricht Treaty ▪ The first period of the European Monetary System (EMS): 1979-1982; ▪ The second period of the European Monetary System (EMS): 1983-1986; ▪ The third period of the European Monetary System (EMS): 1987-1991; Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Infl.   Interest   Investments   GDP  Unemployment  Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The problem of the monetary order: it has always been difficult to conciliate the fixed exchange rates with the free export of capitals and with the autonomy of national monetary policies FREE EXPORT FIXED EXCHANGE RATES OF CAPITALS AUTONOMY OF NATIONAL Stefano Pilotto, 2024 MONETARY POLICIES  The fall of Berlin wall Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The changing of German borders during the 20th century Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe after 1992 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  History and Politics of European Integration ▪ The beginning of the European integration process: from Jean Monnet to the Rome Treaties (1949 – 1957); ▪ The development of the European Communities from Rome Treaties to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1957 – 1989); ▪ The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the new opportunities between east and west in Europe: the Maastricht Treaty and the enlargement process (1989 – 2005); ▪ The failure of the European Constitution and the crisis of the European integration process (2005 – 2008); ▪ The world economic and financial crisis and the consequences for the European Integration Process (2008 – 2011); ▪ The Fiscal Compact agreement of 2012 and the difficulties to erase the europessimism (2011 – 2018); ▪ The crisis around the European Union: Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Isis, immigration (2011 – 2016); ▪ The new program of the EU Commission of Ursula von der Leyen: green deal and digital revolution (2019); ▪ Europe in front of the Coronavirus pandemic and the Next Generation EU (2020 – 2022); ▪ The conflict in Ukraine and the new cold war between the Western countries and the Russian Federation with the BRICS movement (2022 - 2023). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Maastricht Treaty on European Union ▪ 7th of February 1992: signature by the 12 countries of the Treaty of Maastricht; ▪ 1st of November 1993: the Treaty of Maastricht entered into force. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Maastricht Treaty on European Union ▪ 1) Creation of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) before the 1st of January 1999; ▪ 2) creation of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP); ▪ 3) cooperation within the field of justice and internal affairs. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  From Maastricht Treaty to today ▪ The Treaty of Maastricht; ▪ The Treaty of Amsterdam; ▪ The new enlargements; ▪ The Treaty of Nice; ▪ The new European Constitution; ▪ The Lisbon Treaty. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The bonds for the Euro The convergence criteria for EMU and the results obtained in 1997 Inflation Divergence Long term Divergence Government Divergence Public Debt Divergence (%) (%) interest rate (%) (%) Deficit (% of (%) (% du GDP) (%) GDP) Criteria 1,5 2 3 60 established by compared to the compared to the the Maastricht average inflation average long term Treaty. rate of the three interest rate of the best countries. three best countries within the field of inflation. ITALY 1,9 0,7 6,7 0,9 2,7 -0,3 121,6 61,6* GERMANY 1,4 0,2 5,6 -0,2 2,7 -0,3 61,3 1,3* FRANCE 1,3 0,1 5,5 -0,3 3,0 0,0 58,0 -2,0 UN. KINGDOM 1,9 0,7 7,0 1,2 1,0 -2,0 53,0 -7,0 SPAIN 1,9 0,7 6,3 0,5 2,6 -0,4 68,3 8,3* NETHERLANDS 1,8 0,6 5,5 -0,3 1,4 -1,6 72,0 12,0* BELGIUM 1,5 0,3 5,7 -0,1 2,1 -0,9 122,2 62,2* DENMARK 2,0 0,8 6,2 0,4 0,7 -2,3 64,1 4,1* GREECE 5,5 4,3* 10,2 4,4* 4,2 1,2* 110,0 50,0* PORTUGAL 1,9 0,7 6,2 0,4 2,5 -0,5 61,9 1,9* IRELAND 1,2 0,0 6,2 0,4 0,0 -3,0 68,0 8,0* LUXEMBOURG 1,4 0,2 5,6 -0,2 1,7 -1,3 6,7 -53,3 AUSTRIA 1,2 0,0 5,6 -0,2 2,5 -0,5 66,1 6,1* SWEDEN 1,8 0,6 6,5 0,7 1,9 -1,1 77,0 17,0* FINLAND 1,3 0,1 5,9 0,1 0,9 -2,1 55,8 -4,2 Source: Eurostat, 27/2/1998 * not ready for the EMU. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  European Council of Copenhagen (22nd of June 1993) Prerequisites for applying to the European Union ▪ Stable institutions, to guarantee democracy, law supremacy, human rights, minorities respect and minorities protection; ▪ Competitive market economy; ▪ Capacity to achieve the acquis communautaire. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Nice European Council (8th-10th of December 2000) ▪ Adoption of the European Union Chart of Fundamental Rights: reference juridical text for a future European constitution. ▪ Agreement on institutional reforms; ▪ Adoption of the European Social Agenda. ▪ Support of a mobility plan in Europe, based on learning and knowledge of languages. ▪ Protection of the health and of the security of consumers. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Treaty of Nice (26th of February 2001) ▪ Agreement on institutional reforms: change of the Council qualified votes from the 1st of January 2005 and change of the number of the Parliament deputies from the 1st of January 2004 (the criteria of population has been considered to establish new balances). The number of the members of the European Commission will grow from the 1st of January 2005 till 27 members as maximun; afterwards a rotation will take place; each country will nominate just one member. The attributions of the President of the European Commission have been increased.; ▪ The Treaty entered into force on the 1st of February 2003. The Treaty of Nice, the former Treaty of the EU and the Treaty of the EC have been merged into one consolidated version. The text of the Treaty of Nice: http://www.europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/c_325/c_32520021224en00010184.pdf Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Laeken European Council (14th-15th of December 2001) ▪ Creation of an European Convention to discuss and prepare the necessary reforms to be adopted in the future to achieve enlargement and to deep the integration; ▪ Adoption of the operational capability of the European Security and Defence Policy; ▪ Enlargement is irreversible: the best candidates countries should end the accession negotiations by the end of 2002, in order to take part in the European Parliament Elections in 2004 as members; ▪ Support to the International fight against International Terrorism; ▪ Implementation of an Economic and social sustainable development; ▪ Strengthening the area of freedom, security and justice. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Thessaloniki European Council (19th-20th June 2003) ▪ The Draft Document prepared by the European Convention is presented to the European Council: it contains a project of Constitution for European Union, to be implemented by the Intergovernamental Conference and, therefore, adopted by the member states after the 1st of May 2004; the new Constitution of Europe should enter into force before the 1st of November 2009. ▪ New cooperation among the member states in the fields of immigration, asylum and control of the borders: the European Union will adopt common strategies and rules to face the problem of illegal immigration; ▪ Enlargement proceeds regularly, after the signature of the accession treaty of the ten candidate countries; the referendum in several countries (Malta, Slovenia, Hungary, Lithuania, Slovakia, Poland and Czech Republic) confirm the respect of the necessary ratification process, which should be ended by the 1st of May 2004. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Brussels European Council 17th -18th of June 2004 ▪ Set up of the final text of the European Constitution by the 25 member states. ▪ the enlargement continues regularly for Romania and Bulgaria; for Turkey the decision will be taken in December 2004; Croatia is considered eligible and the accession negociations should begin as soon as possible; ▪ Improvement of the European strategy on security, based on performing multilateralism; ▪ Development of European neighbourood policy ▪ Development of strategic partnership with United States, Canada, Japan, China and India. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The signature of the new European Constitution ▪ Rome, Capitolium, Friday the 29th of October 2004: signature by all the 25 member states; to enter into force it should be ratified by all the 25 member states. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The main innovations contained in the draft document presented by the European Convention ▪ Confirmation of the values of European Union: neutral values: no mentioning of the importance of Christianism in the framework of European cultural identity; ▪ Distinction of the exclusive competences of European Union and of the shared competences existing between the European Union and the member states; ▪ Creation of a Minister of Foreign Relations of the European Union, nominated by the European Council and responsible in front of the European Council; ▪ Creation of the European Agency for the armaments, research and military capacities, to strenghten the cooperation among the member states within the framework of defense; ▪ Increase of the codecision power of the European Parliament (from 37 subjects up to 80, more or less), with vote of the Council at the qualified majority (55% of the member states -i.e. at least 15 countries today- + 65% of the population if the Council has to vote a decision proposed by the European Commission or by the Minister of Foreign Relations of EU; in other cases the qualified majority is expressed by 72% of the member states + 65% of the population; minority block must be at least represented by four countries); ▪ The President of the European Union elected by the Council of European Union (qualified majority) for two years and half (renewable just once), to assure the continuity of the European integration process; ▪ The first Commission nominated after the entrance into force of the European Constitution will be composed by one Commissioner for each member state (President and Vicepresident Minister of Foreign Relation included); afterwards, the Commission will be composed (President and Vicepresident Minister of Foreign Relation included) by a number of Commissioners equal to 2/3 of the number of member states, with rotation, except if the European Council, at the unanimity, will decide differently; the President of the Commission is proposed by the Council and is elected by the European Parliament. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  EU crisis in 2005-2024 ▪ French and Dutch no to the EU Constitution; ▪ EU European Council, Brussels 10th-11th of December 2005: Agreement on EU 2007-2013 budget: CAP will remain, even though it will be a bit reduced with time; Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds will not be oriented just towards new acceeding countries but also towards the old historical EU countries; the British rebate will remain, even though it will be partly reduced with time. ▪ The Treaty of Lisbon; ▪ The trend in 2005-2024… Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The future of Europe? Stefano Pilotto, 2024  History and Politics of European Integration ▪ The beginning of the European integration process: from Jean Monnet to the Rome Treaties (1949 – 1957); ▪ The development of the European Communities from Rome Treaties to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1957 – 1989); ▪ The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the new opportunities between east and west in Europe: the Maastricht Treaty and the enlargement process (1989 – 2005); ▪ The failure of the European Constitution and the crisis of the European integration process (2005 – 2008); ▪ The world economic and financial crisis and the consequences for the European Integration Process (2008 – 2011); ▪ The Fiscal Compact agreement of 2012 and the difficulties to erase the europessimism (2011 – 2018); ▪ The crisis around the European Union: Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Isis, immigration (2011 – 2016); ▪ The new program of the EU Commission of Ursula von der Leyen: green deal and digital revolution (2019); ▪ Europe in front of the Coronavirus pandemic and the Next Generation EU (2020 – 2022); ▪ The conflict in Ukraine and the new cold war between the Western countries and the Russian Federation with the BRICS movement (2022 - 2023). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Social and Labour impact of EU enlargement ▪ The Structural Funds; ▪ The circulation of workers. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Structural Funds ▪ The Objective 1 (~70% of the Structural Funds) is oriented towards the regions below 75% of the EU GDP per capita Rate: after the EU enlargement of 2004 only 26 regions of EU15, out of the previous 57, would be eligible for the Objective 1. ▪ With the Enlargement of 2004 (10 more countries) the population of EU has increased as of 20%, the surface has increased as of 23%, but the EU GDP has increased as of 4.8% and the average GDP per Capita has decreased as of 12.4%. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Canarias (E) GuadeloupeMartinique Réunion Guyane (F) GDP per Capita by region (PPS), 2000 Açores (P) Index, EU-25 = 100 Madeira < 30 30 - 50 50 - 75 75 - 100 100 - 125 >= 125 MT: 1999 Source: Eurostat Kypros R e g io GI S Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Workers Circulation ▪ The transition period 2+3+2; ▪ The case of Germany and Austria; ▪ Italy: fixed number of entries for each single year. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The economic patriotism ▪ Economic patriotism: the cases of Mr. Fazio in Italy and the control of credit; the case of Enel- GDF in France; the case of Unicredit-HVB- Pekao in Poland; the case of E.on-Endesa in Spain; the case of Alitalia-Air France in Italy; ▪ The reduced liberalization of services (Bolkstein Directive) The importance of Protectionism (modern Nationalism) versus the concept of Free Trade Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Lisbon European Council 18th-19th of October 2007 ▪ Agreement on a new treaty modifying the previous treaties on European Union; ▪ The new treaty is not a constitution and it would replace the European Constitution which never entered into force because it was rejected by France and Netherlands; Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Lisbon European Council 18th-19th of October 2007 ▪ The main innovations of the Treaty of Lisbon would be: ▪ Distinction of the exclusive competences of European Union and of the shared competences existing between the European Union and the member states; ▪ Not a Minister of Foreign Relations of the European Union, but just a High Representative of EU for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, nominated by the European Council and responsible in front of the European Council; ▪ The President of the European Union is elected by the Council of European Union (qualified majority) for two years and half (renewable just once), to assure the continuity of the European integration process; ▪ Increase of the codecision power of the European Parliament (from 37 subjects up to 80, more or less), with vote of the Council at the qualified majority (from the 1st of November 2014, the qualified majority will be expressed with the positive vote of 55% of the member states -i.e. at least 15 countries today- + 65% of the population; many important subjects, nevertheless, like foreign and security policy, are decided with the unanimous vote; ▪ The first Commission nominated after the entrance into force of the Treaty of Lisbon will be composed by one Commissioner for each member state (President and Vicepresident/High Representative of EU for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy included); afterwards, the Commission will be composed (President and Vicepresident/High Representative of EU for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy included) by a number of Commissioners equal to 2/3 of the number of member states, with rotation, except if the European Council, at the unanimity, will decide differently; the President of the Commission is proposed by the Council and is elected by the European Parliament; ▪ Creation of the European Agency for the armaments, research and military capacities, to strengthen the cooperation among the member states within the framework of defense. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Treaty of Lisbon: the decision making process for the qualified majority (13th of December 2007) As from 1 November 2014 and subject to the provisions laid down in the Protocol on transitional provisions, in cases where, under the Treaties, not all the members of the Council participate in voting, a qualified majority shall be defined as follows: (a) A qualified majority shall be defined as at least 55 % of the members of the Council representing the participating Member States, comprising at least 65 % of the population of these States. A blocking minority must include at least the minimum number of Council members representing more than 35 % of the population of the participating Member States, plus one member, failing which the qualified majority shall be deemed attained; (b) By way of derogation from point (a), where the Council does not act on a proposal from the Commission or from the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, the qualified majority shall be defined as at least 72 % of the members of the Council representing the participating Member States, comprising at least 65 % of the population of these States. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The bodies of European Union 28 COUNCIL OF MINISTERS EUROPEAN COUNCIL (28 countries) (heads of state or government DECISIONS + President of the Commission) POLITICAL BOOSTS EUROPEAN COMMISSION (28 members) PROPOSALS AND EXECUTION EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL (766 members) CENTRAL COMMITTEE CODECISION, COOPERATION AND ADVICE EUROPEAN REGIONS COMMITTEE BANK ADVICE AND SIMPLE OPINION COURT OF JUSTICE AUDIT COURT (28 members) (financial control) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  History and Politics of European Integration ▪ The beginning of the European integration process: from Jean Monnet to the Rome Treaties (1949 – 1957); ▪ The development of the European Communities from Rome Treaties to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1957 – 1989); ▪ The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the new opportunities between east and west in Europe: the Maastricht Treaty and the enlargement process (1989 – 2005); ▪ The failure of the European Constitution and the crisis of the European integration process (2005 – 2008); ▪ The world economic and financial crisis and the consequences for the European Integration Process (2008 – 2011); ▪ The Fiscal Compact agreement of 2012 and the difficulties to erase the europessimism (2011 – 2018); ▪ The crisis around the European Union: Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Isis, immigration (2011 – 2016); ▪ The new program of the EU Commission of Ursula von der Leyen: green deal and digital revolution (2019); ▪ Europe in front of the Coronavirus pandemic and the Next Generation EU (2020 – 2022); ▪ The conflict in Ukraine and the new cold war between the Western countries and the Russian Federation with the BRICS movement (2022 - 2023). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The 2008-2009 financial crisis ▪ Good reaction of EU, to establish an effective coordination of the members national financial policies. ▪ But difficulties in some countries (Greece, Ireland,...) ▪ A kind of a new European Monetary Fund to help the countries. ▪ The German position... ▪ East and West Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The 2008-2009 financial crisis The Italian Government decided new measures to collect financial resources to reduce the deficit and the Public Debt: ▪ New taxes on Real Estate properties; ▪ Increase of VAT %; ▪ New retirement system; ▪ Less political expenses. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Euro risk and the «golden rule» ▪ The risk produced by the Greek financial collapse has suggested to create an European fund to protect the member states: ▪ - the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), created in 2010 (440 billions Euro: 192 billions given to Greece, Ireland and Portugal, 100 billions given to Spain); it was replaced at the end of 2012 by the ESM; ▪ - the European Stability Mechanism (ESM), created in 2011, it entered into force at the end of 2012 after the German Supreme Court approved it (700 billions Euro); during the European Council of the 28th-29th of June 2012 Italy has proposed to use this fund to reduce the bonds spread if the gap attains dangerous levels. ▪ During the European Council of the 9th of December 2011 it was proposed to adopt a new financial agreement, the «golden rule», which would require to have zero government deficit in the future (Fiscal Compact): 25 countries agreed, Great Britain and Czech Republic did not agree. The proposal was adopted on the 2nd of March 2012. Stefano Pilotto, 2024 ▪ The «British Case».  History and Politics of European Integration ▪ The beginning of the European integration process: from Jean Monnet to the Rome Treaties (1949 – 1957); ▪ The development of the European Communities from Rome Treaties to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1957 – 1989); ▪ The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the new opportunities between east and west in Europe: the Maastricht Treaty and the enlargement process (1989 – 2005); ▪ The failure of the European Constitution and the crisis of the European integration process (2005 – 2008); ▪ The world economic and financial crisis and the consequences for the European Integration Process (2008 – 2011); ▪ The Fiscal Compact agreement of 2012 and the difficulties to erase the europessimism (2011 – 2018); ▪ The crisis around the European Union: Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Isis, immigration (2011 – 2016); ▪ The new program of the EU Commission of Ursula von der Leyen: green deal and digital revolution (2019); ▪ Europe in front of the Coronavirus pandemic and the Next Generation EU (2020 – 2022); ▪ The conflict in Ukraine and the new cold war between the Western countries and the Russian Federation with the BRICS movement (2022 - 2023). Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Eurozone Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The comparison of populations in 2015 (millions) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Central and Eastern European countries until 1945 ▪ a) Europe after the Vienna Congress; ▪ b) Independence process in the Balkans ▪ c) The two world wars. Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe before First World War: the Mitteleuropa project Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1914: Europe before First World war Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Europe during First World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1923: Europe after First World War  An example: the enormous reduction of Hungarian territory after First World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1939-1942: Europe during Second World War  Europe’s new borders after World War II Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The huge transfer of populations in Europe after Secon World War, because of the change of the borders: Stefano Pilotto, 2024 20 millions Europeans changed their residence.  The Iron Curtain in Europe from Stettin to Trieste (speech of Churchill in Fulton, Missouri, United States, 6° of March 1946) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Berlin after the Second World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Europe after 1945: the Cold War and the Iron Curtain  The territories lost by Italy after Second World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Exodus of the Italians of Istria, Fiume and Dalmatia: approximately 350.000 Italians left those territories (most of them emigrated in Australia, South Africa, North and South America) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The tragedy of the exodus Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The tragedy of the exodus Stefano Pilotto, 2024  II) Central and Eastern European countries between 1945 and 1989 ▪ a) The Cold War and the Moscow System; ▪ b) The 1953, 1956, 1968, 1980 crisis; ▪ c) The competition versus the Western block: the 1961 and 1977 crisis; ▪ d) The new Gorbaciov Era. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Year 1956 ▪ The twentieth Congress of the Communist Party (the 14th- 15th of February 1956): beginning of the «peaceful coexistence», admission of Stalin’s murders and destruction of the cult vowed to his personality; ▪ Liberal movement in Poland (the 20th of March 1956 - the 18th of November 1956): Gomulka First Secretary of Poland’s Communist Party; ▪ The 26th of July 1956: Nationalization Law of the Suez Channel by Egypt (Nasser); French and British reaction and invasion of the Sinai peninsula by Israel; ▪ The 23th of October 1956 - the 4th of November 1956: Hungarian revolution and military intervention by the Warsaw Pact forces. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Spring in Prague In front of an increasing reform movement in Czechoslovakia, the forces of the Warsaw Pact invaded the country on August 21st, 1968, and re-established the previous order. Formulation of the Breznev Doctrine or Doctrine of Limited sovereignty Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The diplomatic challenge of the Euromissiles ▪ 1970-1980: The rearmament of Soviet Union; ▪ 1977: Soviet Union deployment of a new generation of middle- range missiles (SS 20), with three independent nuclear warheads; ▪ 1979: «double decision» by NATO: starting of military investments for the construction of two new categories of missiles (Pershing II and the Cruise) and, at the same time, offer of negotiation for disarmament to the Soviet Union. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The “diplomatie de la cheminée” Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Gorbaciov internal reforms Economic Reforms Political Reforms ▪ Elimination of State monopoly in ▪ Adoption of the right of strike (9th of foreign trade (January 1987); October 1989); ▪ Authorization to create joint ventures ▪ Possibility to create new political (13th of January 1987); parties (7th of February 1990); ▪ Banking Reform (1st of January 1988); ▪ Elimination of political censure on ▪ Elimination of the agricultural central media (June 1990); planning (from the centre to the ▪ Free conscience and free creation of republics) (16th of March 1989); religious institutions (October 1990). ▪ Privatization Plan (70% of the companies had to be privatized) (April 1990); ▪ Adoption of private property (13th of June 1990); ▪ Free foreign investments in Soviet Union (July 1990). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The crucial period: 1989-1991 ▪ The liberalization process in Central and Eastern Europe, influenced by Gorbaciov’s policy (Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia); ▪ Tienanmen (May 4,1989-June 4, 1989); ▪ The fall of the Berlin Wall and the reunification process of Germany (November 8, 1989-October 3, 1990); ▪ Romania and Bulgaria; ▪ The Persian Gulf War (August 2, 1990-March 1991); ▪ The Baltics issue (October 1990-April 1991); ▪ The new dialogue between the United States and the Soviet Union (April 1991-July 1991); ▪ The collapse of Soviet Union (August 1991-December 1991). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The German reunification process (November 8, 1989 – October 3, 1990) ▪ October 18, 1989: Honecker resigned as SED’s First Secretary, due to the violent manifestations in the Democratic Republic of Germany; ▪ November 4, 1989: the GDR authorities allowed to immigrate to Czechoslovakia; ▪ November 8-9 1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall; open way from one side of the wall to the other; ▪ November 28, 1989: Kohl proposed a reunification (confederation of the two Germanies) by a program based on 10 points; ▪ January 30, 1990: Gorbaciov accepted the principle of the German reunification, at the condition of it’s neutralization (abandoned few days later); ▪ February 7, 1990: Kohl proposed the monetary reunification with a 1 to 1 exchange; ▪ March 18, 1990: The first free elections in GDR and victory of the conservative coalition close to Kohl (Union for Germany); ▪ July 1st, 1990: monetary reunification with a 1 to 1 exchange. ▪ September 12, 1990: Moscow treaty on the definitive settlement of Germany (4+2); the winning powers renounced to their own privileges and rights in Germany; ▪ October 2-3 1990: official reunification of Germany; ▪ November 9, 1990: Cooperation treaty between Germany and Soviet Union; ▪ November 14, 1990: treaty between Germany and Poland (mutual recognition of the new borders). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The fall of Berlin wall Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 The changing of German borders during the 20th century  III) The changes after the fall of the Berlin wall (1989-today) ▪ a) The collapse of Soviet Union; ▪ b) The new international order; ▪ c) The collapse of Yugoslavia. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The collapse of Soviet Union ▪ August 19, 1991: “Coup d’état” in Moscow; Gorbaciov lost his authority and he was replaced by an emergency committee of 8 members, aiming to restore the rank and power of the Soviet Union; ▪ August 21, 1991: Failure of the “Coup d’état”, as a result of the people’s reaction, in which, Yeltsin (President of the Russian Socialist Republic, elected with universal vote on the 12th of June 1991) played a prominent role; ▪ August 21,1991: Gorbaciov got back his position and immediately eliminated the KGB (Secret service of the Soviet Union) and the Soviet Union’s Communist Party. ▪ September 1991: Gorbaciov worked on his own proposal of a confederal pact to be proposed to the other Soviet republics, in which he expressed his wish to maintain the Soviet Union; there was not enough time to introduce it to the republic; ▪ December 8, 1991: Minsk pact between Russia, Ukraine and Belarus; birth of the Community of Independent States (CIS); ▪ December 21, 1991: Alma Ata Pact; the other republics (except Georgia and the three Baltic countries) joined the CIS; Russia inherited the prestigious world-wide position that belonged to the Soviet Union; ▪ December 25, 1991: Gorbaciov resigned. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The New International Order 1991-2023 1) The end of bipolarism; 2) the economic development; 3) the triumph of the right of self determination of peoples: the Balkan crisis; 4) The development of the European integration; 5) The new concept of international emergency; 6) The integration of Central and Eastern European countries in western international organizations; 7) the crises in Albania and Kosovo; 8) the new process of disarmament between the United States and Russia; 9) the international situation after September 11, 2001; 10) The world economic crisis after 2009; 11) The Arab Spring and the destabilization process in some islamic countries in 2010-2013; 12) The Ukrainian crisis, the emergence of the Islamic State, the new Greek crisis; 13) North Korea, Iran, Syria, Hong Kong,… 14) The Covid-19 pandemic in 2021; 15) The conflict in Ukraine in 2022, the conflict in Middle East in 2023. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The World Trade Organization (WTO) ▪ 1st of January 1995: WTO entered into force; 164 countries joined and several are waiting to be admitted; the main principles are: ▪ - international trade without discriminations; ▪ - a growing foreseeable access to markets; ▪ - the promotion of a fair competition; ▪ - encouraging development and economic reforms. ▪ The Secretariat is at Geneva: at the head is the General Director (the Italian Renato Ruggiero, was the first General Director). ▪ At Doha Summit (November 2001) new negociations began (services, agriculture, non agricultural tarifs, trade, environment, rules of WTO -subsidies, antidumping measures, investments, competition policy, trade supports, governments actions transparency, intellectual property-). Those negociations were included in the Doha Development Agenda (DDA), whose negociations should have ended in 2006. ▪ At the Cancún Summit (10-14 September 2003) no consensus on the possible development of the DDA. ▪ At Hong Kong Summit (13-18 December 2005) some progress concerning the DDA was obtained; ▪ At Bali Summit (7 December 2013) an important agreement was reached on selected issues. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Balkan Issue ▪ 1) The general evolution of the Balkan peninsula from 1815 to 1991; ▪ 2) Yugoslavian crisis (1991-1995); ▪ 3) Chechoslovakia (1992-1993); ▪ 4) the Albanian crisis (1997); ▪ 5) the Kosovo crisis (1999 - today). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The general evolution of the Balkan peninsula from 1815 - 1991 ▪ The “Balkan Powder” was progressively developed with the weakening of two great empires: the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Empire; ▪ The Europe prepared in Vienna in 1815 was a Europe created by a spirit of restauration based on the notion of dynastic legitimacy: the borders were not drawn out on the base of ethnic principles but on the claims of the powerful dynasties: Habsburg, Borbon, Romanov, Hohenzollern, Wittelsbach, Wasa, Barganza. ▪ Note: - despite the breakup of various German states the concept of unification already existed with the creation of the Germanic Confederation, which included the Austrian Empire (including Slovenia and partly northern Croatia) - the whole Dalmatian coast including Fiume belonged to the Austrian Empire. - the following territories did not exist and they were part of the Ottoman Empire: Bosnia, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Albania. Only a collapse of the Austrian and Ottoman Empires would have given access to the independence for the Balkan populations. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe as defined at Vienna Conference (1815) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The double head nature of the Habsburg Empire ▪ With the agreement of 1867 the Habsburg Empire got a double head nature, with the creation of the Kingdom of Hungary: the Empire of Austria became the Austria-Hungarian Empire ▪ NOTE: Zagreb, Rijeka and part of Dalmatia were transferred to the Hungarian administration, as well as Transilvania, Slovakia and the Ruthenia Carpathian region! Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The uprisings of the Christian populations of the Ottoman Empire ▪ After the uprisings of the Christian populations against the Ottoman Empire in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1875), the two independent provinces, Serbia and Montenegro, declared war to the Sultan (30th June 1876). Consequently, that was the origin of the Russian-Ottoman war which was then regulated by the peace treaty of Saint Stefano (3rd of March 1878), by which: - Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania obtained their independence - Bulgaria obtained an autonomy status; - southern Bessarabia passed to Russia; - Dobrudja passed to Rumania; - a part of the Ottoman Armenia passed to Russia; ▪ The treaty of Saint Stefano, however, excessively punished the Ottoman Empire; therefore, the big European powers decided to correct the treaty conditions during the Berlin Conference (June 1878).The achievements were the following: - Bulgaria was divided into three parts: one independent part in the north, one to the center (Eastern Rumelia, governed by a Christian governor) and a southern one (Thrace and Macedonia) under the direct control of the Sultan; - Bosnia became territory of the administration of Austria-Hungarian Empire; - the Sanjak of Novi-Bazar (territory that separates Serbia from Montenegro) became part of Austria-Hungarian Empire; Stefano Pilotto, 2024  ▪ The crisis of 1908, provoked by the Serbian and Ottoman reciprocal threats, made two changes: - Bosnia became part of Austria-Hungarian Empire; - Bulgaria auto proclaimed itself independent. ▪ The following two Balkan wars lead to further changes. On the 13th of October 1912 Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro declared war to the Ottoman Empire. Such conflict was resolved with an armistice, on the 3rd of December 1912; however it was soon after violated with the beginning of a new war: Montenegro occupied Scutari and Bulgaria occupied Andrinopoli. The Greek-Serb alliance threated the Bulgarians: such hostilities were finally resolved by the peace treaty of Bucharest on the 10th of August 1913. According to such a treaty the following events occurred: - the Ottoman Empire lost the continental part, except eastern Thrace and Andrinopoli; - Serbia increased its territory to the south dividing Sanjak of Novi-Bazar with Montenegro; - Bulgaria took possession of Eastern Macedonia and a part of Thrace, obtaining an access to the Aegean Sea; - Greece took possession of Salonika and western Thrace; - Romania took possession of Southern Dobrudja with the town of Silistrie; - an independent Albania was created at the conference of London, under common protection of Austria-Hungarian Empire and Italy. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe before the first world war Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The idea of Mitteleuropa ▪ In the German plans, the project of Mitteleuropa had to include a customs association between the annexed countries to the Reich and those close to central and eastern Europe. NOTE: ▪ these ideas remain in the memory of some Germans and continue to represent a possible option within the sphere of foreign politics of Berlin (a common market in central and eastern Europe). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Mitteleuropa Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The storm of the First World War ▪ The first world war changed the balance that had been existing since 1815. The peace treaties that were signed at the end of the war involved the creation of new borders giving birth to a new Europe. The definition of those new borders was done by following the principle of the national legitimacy (according to the logic of the American President Wilson). The results provoked resentments that, in large part, were the origins of the second world war. Many areas were classified as denied zones after the first World War: - Germany lost eastern Prussia, Pomerania and the Silesia; besides these territories, Berlin claimed also the Sudet zone, populated by a majority of Germans; - Austria lost Galizia, Boemia, Moravia, Bucovina, Slovenia and part of Croatia. - Hungary lost Slovakia, Transylvania and part of Croatia; Bulgaria lost Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace, losing therefore the only access to the Aegean Sea; - Russia lost Bessarabia. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe during the First World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe after the First World War Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1939-1942  The changes after the Second World War ▪ The Second World war modified again the European map: - Soviet Union obtained Poland's eastern regions, Karelia (from Finland), the three Baltic countries, the northern zone of eastern Prussia (from Germany), the Ruthenia Carpathian (from Czechoslovakia) and the Bessarabia (from Romania); - Poland obtained southern eastern Prussia, Pomerania and part of Silesia from Germany; - Yugoslavia obtained Istria, the Dalmatian islands and Zara from Italy; - Romania obtained a part of Dobrudja from Bulgaria. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe after the second world war Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1945-1989: The Cold War  The Yugoslavian crisis ▪ a) the warning indicators; ▪ b) the declaration of independence of Slovenia and Croatia (25th of June 1991); ▪ c) the Yugoslavian federal reaction; ▪ d) the recognition by Germany, by the Vatican and by the European Community (15th of January 1992) ; ▪ e) the proclamation of independence of Bosnia and of the Yugoslavian Macedonia; ▪ f) the development of the war in Bosnia and in Croatia; ▪ g) the Peace Agreement of Paris (14th of December 1995); ▪ h) the crisis in Kosovo (1999). Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The warning indicators ▪ 1) the death of Tito in 1980; ▪ 2) the troubles in Kosovo (March 1981); ▪ 3) the document of the Academy of Sciences of Belgrade (26th of September 1986); ▪ 4) the economic crisis; ▪ 5) the abolition of the autonomy of Vojvodina and Kosovo; ▪ 6) the democratization process of Slovenia; ▪ 7) the political evolution in Croatia; ▪ 8) the referendum in Slovenia; ▪ 9) the elections in Serbia; ▪ 10) the failed election of Stipe Mesić at the Federal Presidency of Yugoslavia; ▪ 11) the referendum in Croatia. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The troubles in Kosovo ▪ After the troubles of March 1981: Serbs  Albanians 20.000 - 25,000 Serbs had to leave Kosovo the arrival to power of Slobodan Milosevic in Belgrade (autumn 1987) and beginning of the Serbian defense campaign. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The document from the Belgrade Science Academy ▪ On the 26th of September 1986 a journalist from Belgrade found a memorandum prepared by the Belgrade Science Academy: the document foresaw a return to administrative centralism and the reestablishment of a stronger Serbia to avoid the crisis of the Yugoslavian republics and to protect the Serbs in Kosovo. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The economic crisis ▪ in Yugoslavia during the 70's, there was an economic growth of GDP of 5%, thanks to a foreign debt policy; that, however, caused an increase of the Yugoslavian foreign debt from 2,3 billions $ in 1970 to 20 billions $ in 1984; ▪ the second oil shock caused a recession: a zero growth in 1982 and a negative growth in 1983; ▪ in 1989 inflation reached 2000%; which led to unemployment; ▪ political-financial scandals caused protests, manifestations and strikes in the country. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The progressive abolition of Vojvodina's and Kosovo’s autonomy (1989) ▪ In that way Milosevic wanted to strengthen the Serbian bloc in the federal institutions (Council of the Republics) Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The democratization process of Slovenia ▪ Slovenia (8% of the Yugoslavian population) produced a third of the GDP of Yugoslavia; ▪ 1988: creation of the first movements of opposition; ▪ the 27th of September 1989: the Slovenian Parliament supported a "declaration of sovereignty", subordinating federal laws to those of the Republic of Slovenia, and claiming the right of secession; ▪ April 1990: elections; the democratic opposition (Demos) obtained 55% of the votes; Milan Kucan was elected President of the Slovenian Republic. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The political evolution in Croatia ▪ April-May 1990: elections in Croatia; victory of HDZ (Croatian Democratic Union) led by Franjo Tudjman (42% of the votes); ▪ the Serbian community of Croatia (Krajna and Slavonia) declared their independence on the 2nd of September 1990. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Slovenian referendum ▪ On the 23rd of December 1990: referendum in Slovenia; 88% of the voters gave the mandate to the Slovenian government to negotiate the participation of the Slovenian Republic to a confederation of Yugoslavia and, in case of failure of negotiations, to decide its own independence. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The elections in Serbia ▪ December 1990: Milosevic’s victory during the elections in Serbia. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The blocking of the Presidential Federal elections in Yugoslavia ▪ 15th of May 1991: refusal of the pro Serb group (Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia Herzegovina and Macedonia) to elect the Croatian Stipe Mesić as President of Yugoslavia. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Croatian referendum ▪ 19th of May 1991: referendum in Croatia and yes to independence. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Slovenia’s and Croatia’s declaration of independence (25th of June 1991) ▪ 25th of June 1991: Slovenia’s and Croatia’s declaration of independence. Yugoslavian Constitution  The Right of Self (article 5) Determination of Peoples Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Yugoslavia's Federal reaction ▪ The armed intervention in Slovenia and Croatia after the 25 June 1991; ▪ 7th of July 1991: the end of hostilities in Slovenia; ▪ 7 July 1991: the beginning of the first conference (Lord Carrington president) on Yugoslavia at Hague, under the control of the European Community; ▪ conflict in Croatia (Krajna, Dubrovnik, Slavonia); 18 November 1991: Vukovar taken by the Serbs; Croatian defeat: 1/4 of the Croatian territory was no longer controlled by Zagreb. ▪ October 1991: The United Nations organization decided to support the European Community on the issue of Yugoslavia; Cyrus Vance named as official mediator during the crisis. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The recognition by Germany, the Vatican and the European Community 15th January 1992: Germany and the Vatican recognized Slovenia's and Croatia's independence; other countries of the European Community followed that decision afterwards. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The proclamation of independence of Bosnia Herzegovina and of the Yugoslavian Macedonia ▪ 8th of September 1991: proclamation of independence of the Republic of Skopje (Yugoslavian Macedonia); ▪ 15th of October 1991: proclamation of the independence of Bosnia Herzegovina; ▪ 1st of March 1992: a referendum in Bosnia Herzegovina confirmed the independence (63% of votes); ▪ 6th of April 1992: the European Community recognized Bosnia Herzegovina’s s Independence; ▪ 7th of April 1992: proclamation of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia Herzegovina; ▪ 27th of April 1992: creation of Yugoslavia formed by Serbia and Montenegro. ▪ 22nd of May 1992: Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia Herzegovina admitted to UNO; ▪ 8th of April 1993: FYROM (Yugoslavian Macedonia) admitted to UNO. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The developments of the war in Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia ▪ February 1992: the UNO decided to send a multinational peacekeeping force to Croatia (UNPROFOR) and cooperated by an action of control of the river Danube partly by the WEU and by an action of control of the Adriatic Sea partly by NATO and WEU; there was the creation of protected areas (UNPAs) and in May the deployment and control were extended also in Bosnia Herzegovina; ▪ 30th of May 1992: sanctions against Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) decided by the Security Council of UNO (Resolution 757 of the 30th of May 1992); it concerned trade, economic cooperation, air traffic, sport and diplomatic representation. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The developments of the war in Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia (continued) ▪ 2nd of January 1993: presentation of the plan Vance-Owen: division of Bosnia Herzegovina in ten independent provinces with the city of Sarajevo freely administrated by the UNO; it was signed on the 25th of March 1993 by the Croatians of Bosnia Herzegovina and the Muslims of Bosnia Herzegovina, it was approved by Milosevic and signed by Karadzic. It was then refused by the Parliament of Pale (Serbians of Bosnia Herzegovina) in May 1993, because it did not respect the claimed territory by the Serbs of Bosnia Herzegovina. ▪ 20th of August 1993: presentation of the plan Owen-Stoltenberg: division of Bosnia Herzegovina in three ethnic republics, without territorial continuity (establishment a connection among Muslim enclaves); but it was refused in September by the Muslims of Bosnia Herzegovina; ▪ 2nd of November 1993: presentation of the Tudjman Plan: peace in Krajna (autonomy for the Serbs in Knin and Glina, cultural autonomy for the Serbs throughout all Croatian territory, protection of the Serbian minority according to international rights), continuation of peace negotiations in Geneva, mutual recognition of independence between all the former Yugoslavian republics. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  ▪ February 1994: after the attack at the market of Sarajevo, NATO was called to be part of a growing cooperation with UNO through the air forces; ▪ 18th of March 1994: creation at Washington of one Croatian- Muslim federation in Bosnia Herzegovina and confederation of this federation with Croatia; ▪ 13th of May 1994: the Contact Group (United States, Russia, Germany, France and Great Britain) proposed the 49-51 Plan (49% of the Bosnian Herzegovina territory going to the Serbs and 51% of the territory to the Croatian-Muslim Federation of Bosnia Herzegovina); the Serbs of Bosnia Herzegovina refused because they already controlled 70% of the territory; ▪ 4th of August 1995: extraordinary Croatian counteroffensive action: in few days they were able to re-conquer approximately 4000 km of territory of the Serbs of Croatia and to the Serbs of Bosnia Herzegovina; ▪ 21st of November 1995: conclusion of Dayton Agreement between Croatia, Bosnia Herzegovina and Yugoslavia. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Peace Agreement of Paris ▪ 14th of December 1995: Peace Agreement of Paris, signed by Croatia (Tudjman), Bosnia Herzegovina (Izetbegović) and Yugoslavia (Milosević); acceptance of the 49-51 Plan; a multinational force of 60.000 men (IFOR) supplied by NATO would be deployed on the territories to control the peace agreement. The NATO troops would have remained for several years; the problem of the evacuation of eastern Slavonia and the problem of the passage through Brčko remained for months. In autumn of 1996 Yugoslavia was destabilized from a major political crisis. Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  On the 1st of January 1993 the velvet divorce between Prague and Bratislav made possible the separation of the two countries without conflicts Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Albanian crisis ▪ 1913: Albania independent, under Italian and Austro-Hungarian protection; ▪ 2nd of August 1920: Tirana pact; Italy renounces to Valona and to any form of protectorate in Albania; ▪ 27th of November 1926: Italian-Albanian friendship treaty ; ▪ 22nd of November 1927: Italian-Albanian defense treaty alliance; ▪ 7th of April 1939: Albania annexed by Italy; ▪ April 1945: recovery of the sovereignty by Albania; ▪ 1945-1985: Enver Hoxa communist regime; ▪ 1985-1997: democratic transition; ▪ January 1997: financial and political crisis in Albania; ▪ 14th of April 1997: deployment of a multinational peace force in Albania (Operation Dawn), led by Italy. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Kosovo 1999: international crisis Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Kosovo 1999: the interests International community intertests Yugoslavian interests Albanian interests Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1878-1923  1913 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  1921 - 1926 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes after the Rapallo Agreement (12th November 1920) Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe during the Thirty Years Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1939-1942: Europe during Second World War  The division of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia after the military operations of 1941 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Italian acquisitions of territories after the military operations of April 1941 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The Great Albania in June 1941 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Europe under the Control of Germany and Italy (end of 1942) Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The two blocks in Europe during the Cold War Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 1999  The presence of the Albanians in the region Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The presence of the Albanians in the region Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The minorities in the former Yugoslavia Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The steps of the crisis (1) ▪ Spring 1981: tens of thousands of Albanians from Kosovo complained about the statute of the federate republic of Serbia. Repression in blood. ▪ February 1989: in response to a general strike in Belgrade the state declared a situation of emergency and the Armed Forces were sent in Kosovo. ▪ 23rd of March 1989: Serbia abolished the statute of autonomy of Kosovo (it was established since 1974). ▪ July 1990: Kosovo declared its own independence. Serbia canceled the assembly of Kosovo. ▪ September 1991: proclamation of a republic in Kosovo, recognized by Albania, followed by an illegal referendum. ▪ 24th of May 1992: election of Ibrahim Rugova (belonging to the movement Democrats of Kosovo) to the presidency of the Republic of Kosovo: that was declared as illegal by Belgrade. ▪ February 1995: after six years of avoiding the integration of Albanian children in public schools and colleges, Serbia signed an agreement with Albanian officials aiming towards integration in schools. ▪ July 1995: a Serbian court condemned 68 Albanians from Kosovo because of having set up a parallel police. ▪ Serbia sent several hundreds of Serbian refugees from Krajna and Eastern Slavonia in Kosovo. The tension increased among the different ethnic communities. ▪ February 1996: a series of bomb attacks from a group of Albanian separatists: the UCK appeared for the first time. ▪ January 1997-October 1998: increase of Albanian attacks and Serbian repressions. The number of victims increased. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The steps of the crisis (2) ▪ 13th of October 1998: Belgrade agreement between Milosevic and Hoolbrooke (representative of the international community): the political approach and a peaceful solution must be pursued in order to reach a long-lasting and stable agreement; the violence and the terrorism must stop immediately; the integrity of Yugoslavia must be guaranteed; the solution must equally respect all citizens of the national community in Kosovo and Metohija; elections within ten months with observatories of the OSCE; introduction of one local police; ▪ January 1999: the issue of Račak: in Račak (Kosovo and Metohia), they found 43 bodies of Kosovar – Albanians killed. ▪ 23rd of February 1999: Agreements of Rambouillet: to immediately stop the ethnic cleaning; withdrawal of the Yugoslavian Armed Forces from Kosovo to support the return of the Albanians refugees; deployment of NATO peacekeeping force (28,000 men) in order to guarantee the return of the Albanian refugees and in order to allow the international community to verify that such engagements were respected. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  ational Co ern m nt mu The I nity NATO ONU Stefano Pilotto, 2024  The stages of the crisis (3) ▪ 24th of March 1999 - 10th of June 1999: military intervention of NATO in Yugoslavia; ▪ 8th of June 1999: peace plan for Kosovo adopted by the G8 in Koln; ▪ 9th of June 1999: Technical military agreement concluded at Kumanovo (former Yugoslavia Republic of Macedonia) between representatives of NATO and Belgrade; ▪ 10th of June 1999: Resolution 1244 of the Security Council of ONU. Stefano Pilotto, 2024  Resolution 1244 of the Security Council of UNO ▪ From a legal perspective it could be considered as a way to assure a legal legitimacy to the military attack lead by Nato forces; ▪ Stop of NATO air attacks and total evacuation of Yugoslavian land forces from Kosovo; ▪ the KFOR forces (peacekeeping forces provided by NATO, with participation of Russia) entered Kosovo; ▪ Guarantee of sovereignty and territorial integrity of Yugoslavia; establishment of a self government and own self administration in Kosovo; ▪ Support of a global approach of economic development and stabilization of the region affected by the crisis (Stability Pact South Eastern Europe: wide international participation, with the aim of supporting democracy, economic prosperity, regional stability and cooperation). Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 ▪ Kosovo is the cradle of Serbian civilization Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024  US military base in Camp Bondsteel in Kosovo (Serbia) Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Stefano Pilotto, 2024 Fiat investment in