History of European Integration 2 PDF

🇪🇺 History of European Integration 2 Created @October 9, 2024 11:47 PM Class European Integration 1979-1984: slow ‘relance’ Second enlargement and first direct EP election Greece...

🇪🇺 History of European Integration 2 Created @October 9, 2024 11:47 PM Class European Integration 1979-1984: slow ‘relance’ Second enlargement and first direct EP election Greece became a member of the European Community (EC) on January 1, 1981, following renewed ties with the EC after the end of the Greek dictatorship (1967-1974). Negotiations began in 1976, focusing on economic integration. In June 1979, the first direct elections for the European Parliament took place, marking a shift where Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) were now elected by citizens, not appointed by governments. However, this faced opposition from France and the UK, while Germany, Italy, the Benelux countries(Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) and the European Commission supported it. A compromise was reached: direct elections were allowed, but the European Parliament was given limited legislative and oversight powers. European Monetary System (EMS) In the late 1970s, European Commission President Roy Jenkins launched the European Monetary System (EMS) project to address the need for monetary stability and to keep European integration progressing. Germany quickly became a strong supporter and convinced France to join in backing the EMS. Together, they officially proposed it in 1978. The EMS introduced two key components: The European Currency Unit (ECU), a shared currency unit used for accounting purposes. History of European Integration 2 1  The Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), which aimed to stabilize exchange rates between European currencies. The EMS began in March 1979 as an important first step towards creating a full Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), though it was partly outside the formal European Community structure. Thatcher and the British contribution to the EU When Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister of the UK in 1979, she supported economic integration within the European Community (EC), particularly the idea of a single market. However, she was a strong opponent of political integration and refused to give up British sovereignty. She also prioritized defending British financial interests in the EC. Thatcher aimed to renegotiate the UK's financial contribution to the EC, which she felt was unbalanced. After several years of discussions from 1980 to 1983, she emerged with a strong position within the European Council. At the Fontainebleau Summit in 1984, a significant outcome was achieved: 66% of the British contribution was repaid in the form of a rebate. Additionally, financial reforms were introduced, including changes to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and a cap on the Value Added Tax (VAT) contribution, limiting it to a maximum of 1.4% of the EU budget. During this period, the Dooge Committee was established to study the potential creation of a single market and the necessary institutional reforms that would accompany it. ‘relance’ in economic integration The term ‘relance’ refers to efforts to revitalize (restore) economic integration within the European Community during a period of stagnation (standstill). Key aspects of this revitalization included: There was agreement on a neo-liberal approach, which means reducing rules at the national level (in each country) while adding a few new rules at the European Union level. Explanation: The "neo-liberal approach" refers to an economic strategy focused on free markets, reducing government intervention, and encouraging private business activities. In the context of the EU's economic integration, countries (member History of European Integration 2 2  states) agreed to loosen regulations within their own borders (deregulation). However, at the European level, they introduced some rules to manage things collectively across all countries. This balance was part of a broader plan (called "relance") to boost economic cooperation and integration among EU nations. Étienne Davignon led a campaign to engage the private industry sector. This included the ESPRIT program, which helped companies invest in research and development,, and the European Round Table, where large companies could meet and work together.) The European Commission actively worked to re-launch economic integration by introducing legislative proposals to improve how countries work together and to make rules more similar across the EU. A significant ruling by the European Court of Justice known as the ‘Cassis de Dijon’ ruling supported integration by allowing goods legally sold in one member state to be sold in others, promoting the free movement of products within the EU. ‘relance’ in political integration The term ‘relance’ in the context of political integration refers to efforts to strengthen political cooperation within the European Community (EC) during a time of increasing tensions between the EC and the United States. Key factors contributing to this tension included: The construction of a gas pipeline between the USSR and Western Europe. The deployment of US missiles in Western Europe. Disagreements over the Middle East conflict. As a result of these tensions, the EC want to improve political cooperation, leading to several important initiatives: The Genscher-Colombo initiative aimed to promote greater collaboration in foreign policy, leading to a proposal “ Draft European Act” in 1981, which proposed reforms to enhance political integration (that suggested changes to help countries join together more politically) The Solemn Declaration on the European Union in 1984 symbolized a commitment to deeper political unity among member states. History of European Integration 2 3  A committee on institutional affairs was established within the European Parliament (EP) to address governance issues related to integration. The EP also passed a resolution titled ‘Draft Establishing the European Union,’ which outlined proposals for future political and institutional developments in the EU. These efforts aimed to create a more unified political stance among European countries, reflecting the need for cooperation in response to external pressures. 1985-1988: towards the single market Third enlargement The third enlargement of the European Community involved the accession of Portugal and Spain, with negotiations beginning in 1978 for Portugal and 1979 for Spain. Key points in this process included: The European Commission provided pre-accession support to help both countries prepare for membership. Several problematic areas were identified during negotiations, including issues related to textiles, agriculture, fisheries, the free movement of workers, and necessary administrative reforms. France was concerned about how accession would impact its agricultural sector, which slowed down the process. However, the Fontainebleau Summit in 1984 gave the green light for accession. Jacques Delors, the new president of the European Commission, helped resolve the last remaining issues in 1985, particularly regarding the financing of the Integrated Mediterranean Programs designed to support economic development in these countries. Ultimately, Portugal and Spain officially became EC members on January 1, 1986. An important side effect of this enlargement was a renewed commitment to the overall European integration process, as the inclusion of these two countries highlighted the benefits of working together within the EC. ( One good result of adding these two countries was that it made everyone more History of European Integration 2 4  excited about working together in Europe, showing how helpful it is to be part of the European Community ) Designing the Single Market Designing the Single Market was spearheaded by Jacques Delors, who introduced a highly ambitious plan to complete the Single Market by the end of 1992. This plan included several key components: A renewed effort to develop an Economic and Monetary Union. Reforms aimed at improving the European Community's (EC) foreign policy. Implementation of new decision-making procedures to streamline processes. The project received enthusiastic support from business lobbies, which recognized the potential benefits of a more integrated market. In 1985, Delors, along with Lord Cockfield, released the ‘White Paper on the Completion of the Single Market by the end of 1992.’ This comprehensive document outlined 300 specific measures, detailing the timing and necessary actions for achieving the Single Market. The plan addressed a broad range of policy areas, aiming to eliminate barriers to trade and facilitate free movement of goods, services, people, and capital across member states. Milan Summit and the IGC (1985 - 1986) The Milan Summit (1985-1986) was a significant event in the European integration process, marked by key developments: The White Paper on the Single Market was accepted, setting the stage for the completion of the Single Market by the end of 1992. The Dooge Committee released a report that suggested changes to improve how decisions are made and to give the European Community (EC) more responsibilities. The Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) took place from 1985 to 1986, involving two main sets of discussions: 1. Treaty changes to improve decision-making procedures within the EC. History of European Integration 2 5  2. Increased cooperation in foreign policy and defence. These discussions were combined into one document, resulting in the Single European Act. This act aimed to help create the Single Market and improve the political framework of the European Community (EC). Single European Act (SEA) The Single European Act (SEA), signed in 1986 and effective from July 1, 1987 Key points include: There was no increased cooperation in foreign policy and defence, which remained largely unchanged. The SEA introduced significant institutional reforms, including: The use of qualified majority voting was adopted to make decision- making easier for the Single Market. The European Parliament received new powers with the introduction of the cooperation procedure for single market laws and the assent procedure for international treaties. There was little progress made toward establishing an Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The SEA was accepted by member states between 1986 and 1987. Overall, the Single European Act was seen as a major step forward in the economic integration process, but it received a mixed evaluation due to the lack of progress in political integration. Completion of the single market The completion of the Single Market faced several challenges but ultimately led to significant changes in the European economy: The approval of the 300 measures outlined in the White Paper progressed slowly, causing delays in implementation. These measures significantly affected businesses and industries, leading to more mergers and better cooperation between companies. The Cecchini Report highlighted the economic implications of failing to complete the Single Market, using the term "The cost of non-Europe" to stress the potential losses. History of European Integration 2 6  A dispute emerge over the financial package known as Delors I, focusing on: Liberalization versus the need for cohesion funds to support less economically developed regions. The necessity for budgetary discipline and reforms to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Despite these disputes, an agreement was eventually reached that included: Doubling the structural funds to aid regional development. Implementing necessary reforms to the CAP. Establishing new budgetary rules. With these issues resolved, the 'Europe 1992' deadline was reached, allowing for the completion of the Single Market. 1989 – 1992 from Community to Union Changed circumstances 1989: ‘Annus Mirabilis’ – The fall of the Berlin Wall symbolized the end of the Cold War and prompted significant shifts in European politics and integration. Delors Report on EMU – This report proposed a path toward establishing an Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) in three steps, beginning in 1990. It called for an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) to draft a new treaty to make this process easier. German Unification (1990): Elections in East Germany took place in March 1990 The German Monetary Union was established in July 1990, making the same currencies for East and West Germany. Full union of Germany occurred in October 1990, providing fresh drive for the broader European integration process. During this period, Jacques Delors emphasized the need for political integration, while Chancellor Helmut Kohl advocated for the simultaneous union of Germany and Europe. History of European Integration 2 7  At the Strasbourg Summit in 1989, European leaders agreed to hold a new intergovernmental conference (IGC) to discuss the challenges and opportunities from these changes. Parallel Intergovernmental Conferences (IGCs) (1990) In 1990, two parallel Intergovernmental Conferences (IGCs) were initiated: Economic and Monetary Union (EMU): Focused on completing phases II and III of the EMU process. European Political Union (EPU): Built upon the Kohl-Mitterrand letter, which called for deeper political cooperation in Europe. During the Rome Summit in October 1990, European leaders reached an agreement to begin phase II of the EMU on January 1, 1994. John Major became the Prime Minister after Margaret Thatcher in 1990, marking a shift in British leadership during this pivotal period of European integration. the EMU and EPU IGCs IGC Negotiations for EMU and EPU (December 1990 - December 1991) During the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) negotiations from December 1990 to December 1991, discussions focused on two parallel tracks: the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and the European Political Union (EPU). Key positions of the member states included: Germany: Strongly supported the EMU, advocating for the establishment of an independent European Central Bank, and was also in favour of the EPU. France: Supported both the EMU and EPU, favouring increased powers for the Council of Ministers. United Kingdom: Opposed the EMU and resisted the move towards more supranational policies, reflecting concerns over national sovereignty. Italy: Supported greater supranational policies, was in favour of both the EMU and EPU, and opposed the idea of flexible integration or a "two- speed Europe." History of European Integration 2 8  The European Commission, led by Jacques Delors, played a significant role in shaping discussions on the EMU but had little influence over the EPU negotiations. The European Parliament was largely absent from the negotiations, showing a lack of involvement for this important decision-making time. Draft Treaty of the Luxembourg Presidency: This initial draft introduced a pillar structure to the EU, organizing its functions into different areas. The Maastricht Treaty The Maastricht Treaty, officially known as the Treaty on European Union. Key features included: Dispute Over European Social Policy: There was disagreement over the introduction of a Social Protocol, which allowed the UK to opt out and avoid commitments related to social policies. Phase III of the EMU: The treaty required that the third phase, involving the full introduction of the euro, would start no later than 1999 New Intergovernmental Pillars: The treaty introduced two new pillars: Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): Designed to strengthen collaboration on foreign policy and security issues among EU member states Justice and Home Affairs (JHA): Focused on cooperation in areas such as immigration, asylum, and police cooperation. Co-decision Procedure: The Maastricht Treaty established the co-decision procedure, which allowed the European Parliament to have a greater role in the legislative process. This increased EU competencies and expanded the use of qualified majority voting (QMV) in decision-making, streamlining the process for adopting legislation. The Ratification of the Maastricht Treaty The ratification process for the Maastricht Treaty involved referenda in several member states, leading to a mix of outcomes: Danish Referendum: The treaty was rejected by Danish voters, with 50.7% voting against it. History of European Integration 2 9  Irish Referendum: In contrast, the Irish public accepted the treaty, with 69% voting in favour. French Referendum: The French also approved the treaty, though narrowly, with 51% supporting it. Following the Danish rejection and the close call in France, reactions included: The European Commission and the European Council emphasized the importance of the subsidiarity principle, which promotes decision-making at the most local level possible, and the need for increasing transparency in EU decision-making processes. At the Edinburgh Summit in 1992, the EU leaders granted Denmark opt- outs regarding phase III of the EMU and certain defence issues within the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Final ratification developments included: A new Danish referendum took place, resulting in 56.7% of voters accepting the treaty. There were delays in ratification from the UK and Germany due to concerns related to the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) and constitutional issues, respectively. 1990 – 2000: developing the Union The European Economic Area (EEA) The European Economic Area (EEA) was established in 1992 and effectively combined the European Union (EU) and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), which included Austria, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. One of its key features was the incorporation of the single market acquis, allowing EFTA countries to participate in the single market. However, these countries became de facto EU members as policy-takers rather than policy-makers, meaning they had to adopt EU regulations without having a say in their creation. History of European Integration 2 10  The EEA served as a waiting room for those countries considering EU membership. However, many EEA countries faced economic stagnation(застій), This raised concerns about the possibility of being excluded from the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and key decision- making processes within the EU. After the Cold War, concerns about neutrality became less significant, prompting countries like Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland to apply for EU membership, seeking the benefits that full EU integration could provide. The Fourth Enlargement The fourth enlargement of the EU began in February 1993. The countries involved were wealthy nations with established administrative structures and politically enthusiastic elites, which made the negotiation process easier. These countries had already adopted much of the acquis Communautaire through their participation in the European Economic Area (EEA), making alignment with EU regulations less challenging. Key issues discussed during negotiations included environmental policies, agriculture, energy, fisheries, and cohesion funds. Accession agreements were signed in March 1994, ahead of the European Parliament (EP) elections in May 1994 and the start of the next Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), marking a significant step in the EU's expansion. Ratification and Consequences of the Fourth Enlargement Ratification of the Accession Agreements (1994): Austrian referendum accepts the accession (66.4% in favour) Finish referendum accepts the accession (56.9% in favour) Swedish referendum accepts the accession (52% in favour) Norwegian referendum rejects the accession (52.5% against) The accession of Austria, Sweden, and Finland took effect on January 1, 1995. History of European Integration 2 11  Consequences of the Enlargement: The new member states became net contributors to the EU budget, meaning they paid more into the budget than they received in funding. There were shifts in institutional priorities, emphasizing transparency (прозоростi), participation, and openness within the EU decision-making processes. New policy priorities emerged, focusing on: Environmental issues, Social protection, Development in the Global South, Foreign policy. While Sweden remained sceptical about joining the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), both Austria and Finland became enthusiastic supporters of the single market and defence policies respectively. Preparations for a New Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) The organization of a new IGC was established in the Maastricht Treaty A reflection group, led by Carlos Westendorp, was formed to discuss necessary reforms. This group included representatives from member states, the European Parliament (EP), and the European Commission. The report produced by the reflection group in 1995 highlighted several disagreements. The Treaty of Amsterdam The Treaty of Amsterdam, signed in 1997 and effective from 1999 Flexible Integration: The treaty allowed some flexibility, letting certain countries cooperate more closely in some areas if others didn’t want to. However, the EU’s main rules (acquis communautaire) couldn't be weakened. Countries not participating could still block certain decisions. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): History of European Integration 2 12  To improve how the EU manages foreign policy, it created a unit to help with planning. The Secretary-General became the High Representative for Foreign Policy to represent the EU better in global affairs. It also allowed member states to “abstain” from votes without blocking decisions, and it integrated defense tasks (like crisis management) through the Western European Union (WEU). Decision-Making: The treaty increased the use of qualified majority voting (QMV), which means decisions could be made without unanimous agreement. It also gave the European Parliament more power to make laws through the co-decision procedure but didn’t change how the European Commission is formed. Justice and Home Affairs (JHA): It brought the Schengen Agreement into EU law, which allows free movement between countries, but the UK and Ireland opted out. It also moved immigration and asylum policies into the main part of EU decision- making but with some exceptions. Social Protocol: The treaty reinforced the EU's focus on social issues, like workers' rights and social protections, making them a stronger priority for the EU. The Treaty of Amsterdam is mostly seen as a failure because it didn’t make the major changes needed to handle the upcoming enlargement that would include Central and Eastern European countries. The Protocol on three 'left-overs' refers to unresolved matters that needed to be addressed before the EU could expand. These included: The composition of the European Commission (how many members it should have and how they are chosen). Extending the use of Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) Designing a new voting system for the Council of Ministers to account for the growing number of member states after enlargement. These issues were set aside for discussion in a future History of European Integration 2 13  Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) before the EU would admit new members. The Treaty of Amsterdam officially came into effect on May 1, 1999. The Treaty of Nice The Treaty of Nice, signed in 2001 and effective from 2003, aimed to address the unresolved issues from the Treaty of Amsterdam through an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) in 2000. Here are the main institutional changes introduced: New Division of Votes in the Council of Ministers:The treaty changed how votes are divided among EU countries, giving bigger countries more votes while adjusting for the EU's expansion Germany, France, UK, Italy 29 Spain, Poland 27 Romania 14 Netherlands 13 Belgium, Greece, Portugal, Hungary, Czech Republic 12 New Division of Members of the European Parliament (MEPs): Redistribution of seats in the European Parliament New Composition and Internal Rules for the European Commission: New Criteria for Qualified Majority Voting (QMV): some new domains (areas) three conditions to reach qualified majority ( majority of countries, a majority of votes, and representation of a majority of the EU population ) Enhanced Cooperation Rules: Provided new rules for member states wishing to pursue integration in specific areas without requiring all member states to participate. Changes in Article 7 (Democracy Protection): Strengthened mechanisms to protect democratic principles and values within the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights: History of European Integration 2 14  Although outside the treaty text itself, the Charter was recognized and promoted as a key document outlining the fundamental rights of EU citizens. Qualified Majority Voting: after the Treaty of Nice Qualified majority: 255/345 = (73,91%) Minimum number of members = 14 Minimum % of population = 58,29 (or 62 if invoked) Blocking minority: 91/345 Ratification and Evaluation of the Treaty of Nice Ratification: The ratification process for the Treaty of Nice took place between June 2001 and October 2002, with Denmark being the first to ratify and Ireland the last. Effective Date: The treaty officially came into effect on February 1, 2003. Evaluation: The evaluation of the Treaty of Nice is largely negative, as it failed to properly reform EU institutions in preparation for the entry of new member states in 2004. From Nice to Lisbon overview December 2001: Laeken Declaration February 2002 – June 2003: European Convention 2003 - 2004: Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) June 2004: signing of the Constitutional Treaty October 2004 – October 2006: ratification in the member states May – June 2005: failed referendums in France and the Netherlands History of European Integration 2 15  June 2005 – June 2007: ‘reflection period’ June 2007: political agreement to develop a ‘Reform Treaty’ July 2007 – October 2007: Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) October 2007: adoption of the Reform treaty December 2007: signing of the ‘Treaty of Lisbon’ January 2008 – Summer 2009: ratifications in the member states June 2008: failed referendum in Ireland December 2008: European Council agrees on concessions to Ireland October 2009: new referendum in Ireland December 2009: Treaty of Lisbon effective Laeken European Council The Laeken European Council, held in December 2001, resulted in the Laeken Declaration, which provided analysis of the European Union's achievements and shortcomings. Here are its key points: Achievements vs. Shortcomings: The declaration recognized the EU's successes in promoting peace, stability, and economic growth. However, it also highlighted significant issues, including a democratic deficit, lack of transparency, and insufficient external power. Challenges Identified: The declaration listed several key challenges the EU faced: Division of competences between EU institutions and member states. Simplification of the acquis (the body of EU laws and regulations). More democracy, transparency, and efficiency within the EU. The possibility of establishing a European Constitution. Broadened Reform Agenda: History of European Integration 2 16  The reform agenda was expanded from a limited towards a complete open agenda Reform Method: The reform process was structured in two main phases: 1. A Convention with broad participation, including representatives from national parliaments, EU institutions, and a civil society forum. 2. An Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) to confirm and finalize the outcomes of the Convention. Convention Draft Constitutional Treaty: Radical Reforms The Convention Draft Constitutional Treaty proposed radical reforms to make the EU more efficient and better at handling external policies. European Council: Officially recognized as an EU institution. It would have a permanent president elected for 2.5 years and would be in charge of EU foreign policies. Council of Ministers: Divided into three main groups: 1. General Affairs Council to prepare European Council meetings. 2. Legislative Council for law-making. 3. External Affairs Council, led by a new Minister for External Affairs. The main rule for passing laws is co-decision, but with some exceptions. Also, a new rotating presidency system was introduced. European Commission: Reduced to 15 members with a rotating system. The President of the Commission would be elected by the European Parliament, based on a suggestion from the European Council. European Parliament: Most EU laws would be made through co-decision with Qualified Majority Voting (QMV), except for some areas. The Parliament would also handle History of European Integration 2 17  justice and home affairs, but not foreign policy. Qualified Majority Voting (QMV): A new double majority system: laws need the support of 50% of member states and 60% of the EU population to pass. National Parliaments: National parliaments could do an ex-ante subsidiarity test to check if a law should be dealt with at the national level instead of by the EU. Minister of Foreign Relations: A new role created to coordinate between the Council of Ministers and the European Commission on external (foreign) affairs. IGC and the Constitutional Treaty Negotiations for the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) began in October 2003, and an agreement was reached in June 2004. The resulting Constitutional Treaty aimed for significant but less radical reforms than previous proposals. Key features included: One single text, replacing all former treaties Legal Personality for the EU The legislative process would apply more broadly, with some exceptions. Simplification of legal instruments, including ‘European laws The Charter of Fundamental Rights became part of the treaty (Charter of Fundamental Rights incorporated in the Treaty) The Council of Ministers' law-making meetings (as legislator) would be open to the public. National parliaments would have a larger role. More decisions would be made using Qualified Majority Voting (QMV), reducing the need for unanimity. Simplified QMV rules. More competences in internal security. More competences in external policies: Minister of Foreign Affairs History of European Integration 2 18  The treaty needed to be ratified within 2 years, either by parliament or through a referendum. ( Rejected by France and Nederland in 2005 ) From Constitutional Treaty to Treaty of Lisbon Between July and October 2007, an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) 's job was to convert the European Council’s decisions into a new treaty. Instead of creating a completely new document, the treaty was formed by making changes (amendments) to the existing treaties. Many of these changes were taken from the earlier Draft Constitutional Treaty. In October 2007, the European Council reached a political agreement on this new treaty, called the Reform Treaty. On December 13, 2007, in Lisbon, the EU leaders signed the final version, known as the Treaty of Lisbon. Treaty of Lisbon The Treaty of Lisbon was different from the earlier Draft Constitutional Treaty in several ways: 1. It didn’t replace the previous treaties but instead it made specific changes to two major treaties the Treaty on the European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFU). 2. It included the Charter of Fundamental Rights, but with opt-outs for the UK and Poland. 3. The Euratom Treaty remained unchanged. 4. The UK secured opt-outs from cooperation in police and justice matters. 5. At the request of Czechia and the Netherlands, the treaty didn’t include EU symbols like the flag, anthem, or motto. 6. At France's request, there was no mention of "free and unlimited competition" in the treaty. 7. The Charter of Fundamental Rights was attached as a Protocol, meaning it wasn't part of the main treaty. 8. There was little simplification of the legal processes or instruments. Main innovations History of European Integration 2 19  Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) in the Council of Ministers: From November 2014, decisions would require support from 55% of member states, representing at least 65% of the EU population. The ‘Ioannina Compromise’ allows slowing down decisions: Until 2017, 75% of member states or population could trigger it. After 2017, this threshold drops to 55%. A transition period until 2017 allows any country to revert to the old Treaty of Nice rules. Less unanimity, more QMV: More decisions in the Council would use QMV instead of unanimous votes, with key changes in agriculture and internal security. Permanent President of the European Council: A new role created for a 2.5-year term. The European Council becomes an official EU institution. The High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (not called a "Minister") would also be a Vice-President of the European Commission. By 2014, the number of European Commissioners was planned to be two- thirds of the total number of member states. The EU gains legal status, merging its previous three pillars into one structure. National parliaments gain the power to check EU laws before they are passed through an ex-ante subsidiarity control Further Innovations Expanded Co-Decision Process: Co-decision between the Council of Ministers and European Parliament was extended to new areas like agriculture, police, and justice cooperation, with exceptions in foreign policy, defence, social security, and fiscal issues. European Parliament and Budget: History of European Integration 2 20  The European Parliament gained full power over the EU’s annual budget, alongside the Council of Ministers. Clearer Division of Powers: A more defined separation of responsibilities between the EU and member states. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): Confirmation of its sui generis (special) status within the EU structure. Enhanced (Strengthening) Cooperation: Easier conditions for enhanced cooperation between member states, requiring at least 9 countries, especially in areas where unanimity remains. Voluntary Withdrawal: A new procedure for voluntary withdrawal from the EU. Accession Criteria (Copenhagen): Copenhagen criteria for joining the EU were incorporated into the treaty, with the possibility of adding additional criteria. New Policy Challenges: Explicit reference to issues like climate change and energy solidarity as new EU policy priorities. Ratification of the Lisbon Treaty 1. Ratification in all 27 member states: Most countries ratified the treaty through parliamentary procedures. Ireland held a referendum. 2. June 2008: The Irish public rejected the Lisbon Treaty in the referendum. 3. European Council (December 2008): To win Ireland's approval, the EU made concessions: Each country would keep 1 Commissioner. The EU would not interfere with Ireland's neutrality or ethical issues like abortion. History of European Integration 2 21  A legal solution was found through a protocol added to the Croatian Accession Treaty (2013). 4. October 2009: Ireland held a second referendum and accepted the Lisbon Treaty. 5. Autumn 2009: The final ratifications were completed in Germany, Poland, and Czechia. 6. 1 December 2009: The Lisbon Treaty officially became effective. Latest Developments in the EU (2009-2024) 1. No Treaty Changes and only one enlargement (accession of Croatia in 2013 ) 2. EU in (Poly)Crisis Mode: The EU has faced numerous overlapping crises: Economic crises: Banking crisis, eurozone debt crisis, and recession leading to low growth. Migration crisis: Issues with refugees, pressure on the Schengen zone, and debates over handling migration. Security: Concerns over internal and external security, terrorism, and complex relations with the US, China, and the Middle East (Israel-Palestine conflict). Populism and Euroscepticism: A rise in populism across Europe, challenges to liberal democracy, and Brexit (the UK leaving the EU in 2020). Health crisis: The Covid-19 pandemic. Ukraine: Ongoing crisis related to energy supplies and geopolitical tensions. 3. Shift Toward Intergovernmentalism: There has been a strengthening of the intergovernmental character of the EU, with increased influence of the European Council and mechanisms like the European Semester (a tool for economic coordination), and bilateral (двосторонній) initiatives between member states. 4. 2020: Brexit: History of European Integration 2 22  In 2020, the UK officially left the EU, marking a significant moment in EU history. 5. 2023: Institutional Reforms on the agenda: Discussions about institutional reform have come up again because Ukraine might join the EU. 6. 2024: Key EU Events: The European Parliament elections will take place, leading to a new European Commission and a new European Council President. History of European Integration 2 23