History 207 Midterm I Study Guide with Definitions.pdf

History 207 Midterm I Study Guide with Definitions 1. Songhai Empire - West African empire involved in the trans-Saharan trade and engaged in slavery with a hierarchical social structure. 2. Columbian Exchange - Exchange of goods, ideas, and diseases between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after...

History 207 Midterm I Study Guide with Definitions 1. Songhai Empire - West African empire involved in the trans-Saharan trade and engaged in slavery with a hierarchical social structure. 2. Columbian Exchange - Exchange of goods, ideas, and diseases between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after 1492. 3. Christopher Columbus - Italian explorer who made four voyages across the Atlantic under the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, establishing permanent European settlements in the New World. 4. Treaty of Tordesillas – 1494 - Agreement between Spain and Portugal, brokered by the Pope, which divided the New World between the two powers along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. 5. Hernando Cortes - Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. 6. Encomienda System - A labor system in colonial Spanish America, where colonists were granted rights to the labor of indigenous people in exchange for their conversion to Christianity. 7. Bartolome de Las Casas - Spanish priest who advocated for the rights of indigenous people and fought against the abuses of the encomienda system. 8. Council of Valladolid – 1550 – 1551 - A debate held in Spain regarding the treatment of the indigenous people in the Americas, primarily between Bartolome de Las Casas and Juan Gines de Sepulveda. 9. Henry VIII - King of England who broke from the Catholic Church and established the Church of England after the Pope refused to annul his marriage. 10. Sir Walter Raleigh - English adventurer and writer who established the failed Roanoke Colony and popularized tobacco in England. 11. Roanoke Island Settlement - The first English settlement in the New World, famously known as the 'Lost Colony' after its inhabitants disappeared under mysterious circumstances. 12. Requerimiento - A declaration by the Spanish monarchy stating their right to take possession of the New World and subjugate its people, often used to justify the conquest. 13. Peter Minuit – Manhattan - Dutch colonial governor who is credited with purchasing Manhattan Island from the Native Americans for trade goods worth around 60 guilders. 14. Aztecs - A Mesoamerican empire centered in present-day Mexico that was conquered by Hernando Cortes in 1521. 15. Iroquois League - A powerful alliance of five (later six) Native American nations in the Northeastern U.S., known for their sophisticated political organization and influence in European colonial affairs. 16. Puritans - English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England from Roman Catholic practices and established colonies in New England with strict religious standards. 17. Oliver Cromwell - English military leader and later Lord Protector of England, who ruled after the execution of Charles I during the Commonwealth period. 18. The Restoration - The period following the Commonwealth when the monarchy was restored in England under Charles II in 1660 after the death of Oliver Cromwell. 19. The Glorious Revolution - The 1688 overthrow of King James II of England by William of Orange and Mary, leading to constitutional changes that limited royal power and established a constitutional monarchy. 20. Joint – Stock Company - A business entity where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders, used by England to finance colonization, notably with the Virginia Company. 21. Virginia Company - A joint-stock company chartered by James I in 1606 to establish settlements in North America, leading to the foundation of Jamestown. 22. Jamestown - The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1607 in Virginia by the Virginia Company. 23. John Smith - A leader of the Jamestown colony who established trade relations with Native Americans and imposed the 'No Work, No Food' policy to ensure the survival of the colony. 24. “NO WORK NO FOOD” - A policy enforced by John Smith in Jamestown to ensure colonists worked for their sustenance and contributed to the colony’s survival. 25. Tobacco - A cash crop that became the economic foundation of Virginia after John Rolfe introduced a sweeter strain, fueling the colony’s growth and demand for labor. 26. Head – Right System - A system used to encourage colonization in Virginia by granting 50 acres of land to settlers for every person they financed to come to the colony. 27. Good Friday Massacre - A 1622 attack by the Powhatan Confederacy on the English colonists in Virginia, killing a quarter of the population in one day. 28. Toleration Act – 1649 - An act passed in Maryland to guarantee freedom of religion for Christians, particularly Catholics, as a response to Protestant-Catholic tensions. 29. Plymouth Colony - A colony founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims who sailed on the Mayflower, establishing a community based on religious freedom. 30. William Bradford - A leader of the Plymouth Colony who served as governor for over 30 years and helped the colony survive its early years. 31. Mayflower Compact - The first governing document of Plymouth Colony, signed by the Pilgrims in 1620, establishing self-governance based on majority rule. 32. Massachusetts Bay Company - A joint-stock company chartered by Charles I in 1629, which established the Massachusetts Bay Colony, mainly settled by Puritans. 33. Femme Couverte - A legal doctrine where a married woman’s legal rights and obligations were subsumed by those of her husband. 34. Sainthood - The Puritan practice of declaring individuals to be part of the elect, which gave them the right to participate in governance and church decisions. 35. Quakers - Members of the Religious Society of Friends who believed in equality, pacifism, and religious tolerance, and who founded the colony of Pennsylvania. 36. Half – Way Covenant - A form of partial church membership created by Puritan New England in 1662, allowing children of non-saints to be baptized and become church members. 37. Patronage - The granting of political favors or appointments as rewards for loyalty or service, often used in colonial government. 38. Sir Edmund Andros - Governor of the Dominion of New England, whose authoritarian rule led to widespread resentment and his eventual arrest after the Glorious Revolution. 39. William Penn - The founder of Pennsylvania, a Quaker who envisioned the colony as a 'Holy Experiment' of religious tolerance and democratic governance. 40. “Holy Experiment” - William Penn’s vision for Pennsylvania as a colony that practiced religious tolerance and provided equal political rights to all male citizens. 41. Quaker Ideals - Beliefs held by Quakers that emphasized equality, pacifism, and religious tolerance, rejecting social hierarchies and violence. 42. 5 Distinct Regions of Commerce - The major colonial regions involved in trade: the West Indies, Lower South, Chesapeake, New England, and Middle Colonies. 43. Inland Back Countries - Areas settled by new immigrants or ex-servants, often living tough, subsistence lifestyles but relying on trade for tools and supplies. 44. Colonial Commercial Empire - The extensive trade networks between England and its colonies, focusing on the exchange of raw goods and finished products. 45. Yankee - A term used to describe New England merchants who grew wealthy through trade and shipbuilding, often seen as secular and business-focused. 46. Indentured Servant - A person who signed a contract to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to the colonies and the promise of land or money at the end of their service. 47. African Slavery - The system of forced labor in the colonies that developed as the primary workforce in agriculture, especially in the southern colonies, after the decline of indentured servitude. 48. “Condition of the Mother” - A Virginia law from 1662 that declared children born to enslaved women would inherit their enslaved status from their mothers. 49. Triangle Trade - A system of trade in which goods and enslaved people were exchanged between Africa, the Americas, and Europe, creating a profitable network for merchants. 50. Middle Passage - The horrific journey that enslaved Africans endured across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, where many died due to inhumane conditions. 51. Gang Labor - A system of labor used on tobacco and cotton plantations where enslaved people worked in groups under strict supervision, mainly in the Chesapeake region. 52. Task Labor - A system of labor where enslaved individuals were assigned specific tasks to complete within a certain time, allowing them some control over their workday. 53. Stono Rebellion - A 1739 slave rebellion in South Carolina, where enslaved people attempted to march to Spanish Florida for freedom, resulting in stricter slave laws. 54. Enlightenment - An 18th-century intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, and individualism over tradition and religious authority. 55. Deism - A belief that God created the universe but does not intervene in its operations, advocating for a naturalistic view of religion. 56. Social Contract - A theory developed by philosophers like John Locke that suggests government’s authority is based on the consent of the governed and must protect citizens' natural rights. 57. Great Awakening - A religious revival movement in the 18th century that swept through the American colonies, encouraging emotional worship and challenging established churches. 58. Salutary Neglect - A British policy of loosely enforcing trade laws in the American colonies, allowing for economic growth and self-governance as long as the colonies remained loyal. 59. Colonial Governor - An official appointed by the British Crown or colonial company to oversee colonial administration, often holding significant power over the local assemblies. 60. Representative Assembly - A legislative body elected by the colonists to make local laws and decisions, serving as a form of self-governance in the colonies. 61. French and Indian War - A conflict between Britain and France from 1754 to 1763 in North America, part of a larger global conflict known as the Seven Years' War. 62. George Washington - A young Virginia officer who gained military experience during the French and Indian War and later became the first president of the United States. 63. Albany Plan of Union - A 1754 proposal by Benjamin Franklin to create a unified government for the Thirteen Colonies, which was ultimately rejected by the colonies and the British government. 64. General Edward Braddock - A British general whose failed attempt to capture Fort Duquesne during the French and Indian War led to his defeat and death in 1755. 65. Fort Duquesne - A French fort at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, the site of several key battles during the French and Indian War. 66. Fort William Henry - A British fort captured by the French in 1757, leading to the infamous massacre of British troops by French-allied Native American forces. 67. Treaty of Paris – 1763 - The treaty that ended the French and Indian War, ceding most of France’s North American territories to Britain. 68. Proclamation Line of 1763 - A British edict that prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains in an attempt to prevent conflicts with Native Americans. 69. Sugar Act – 1764 - A British law that taxed sugar and other goods imported into the American colonies, leading to protests over taxation without representation. 70. George Grenville - The British Prime Minister who introduced the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act, fueling colonial resentment. 71. Stamp Act – 1765 - A British law that imposed a direct tax on printed materials in the colonies, sparking widespread protests and the slogan 'no taxation without representation'. 72. Sons of Liberty - A secret organization of American colonists formed to oppose British policies, particularly the Stamp Act, using protests and acts of defiance. 73. Townsend Act – 1767 - A series of British laws imposing duties on glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea imported to the colonies, leading to boycotts and protests. 74. Ben Franklin - A founding father, diplomat, inventor, and writer who played a key role in gaining French support for the American Revolution and in drafting the Constitution. 75. Boston Massacre - A 1770 incident where British soldiers killed five colonists during a confrontation in Boston, heightening tensions between the colonies and Britain. 76. Tea Act – 1776 - A British law that gave the East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the American colonies, leading to the Boston Tea Party. 77. Alexander Wedderburn - A British lawyer and politician known for his harsh criticism of Benjamin Franklin during the Hutchinson Letters Affair. 78. Boston Tea Party - A 1773 protest in which American colonists, disguised as Native Americans, dumped British tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act. 79. The Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) – 1774 - A series of punitive laws passed by Britain in response to the Boston Tea Party, aimed at tightening control over the colonies. 80. First Continental Congress - A 1774 meeting of delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies in response to the Intolerable Acts, where they coordinated resistance to British rule. 81. Galloway’s Plan of Union - A proposal at the First Continental Congress to create a colonial parliament that would work in partnership with the British government, rejected by the delegates. 82. Declaration of Rights and Grievances - A document produced by the First Continental Congress outlining colonial objections to the Intolerable Acts and asserting the colonists’ rights. 83. Lexington and Concord - The first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War in April 1775, marking the start of open conflict between the colonies and Britain. 84. Second Continental Congress - A meeting of colonial delegates in 1775 that managed the colonial war effort, moved towards independence, and created the Continental Army. 85. Olive Branch Petition - A final attempt by the Second Continental Congress to avoid war with Britain by affirming loyalty to the British Crown, which was rejected by King George III. 86. Common Sense - A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 advocating for American independence and challenging the legitimacy of the British monarchy. 87. Declaration of Independence - The formal statement adopted on July 4, 1776, declaring the 13 American colonies as independent from Britain, primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson. 88. Committee of Five - The group of delegates tasked with drafting the Declaration of Independence, including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. 89. Battle of Bunker Hill - A 1775 Revolutionary War battle in Boston that demonstrated the ability of the American forces to stand up to the British, despite ultimately losing the hill. 90. Patrick Henry - A Virginia lawyer and politician known for his fiery speeches against British rule, including his famous quote, 'Give me liberty, or give me death!'. 91. Thomas Jefferson - The principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later the third president of the United States, known for his advocacy of democracy and individual rights. 92. George III - The King of Great Britain during the American Revolution, whose policies and response to colonial grievances contributed to the outbreak of war. 93. John Adams - A leader of the American Revolution and a member of the Committee of Five, who later became the second president of the United States. 94. Samuel Adams - A Massachusetts politician and a key leader in the American Revolution, known for his role in organizing the Boston Tea Party and his advocacy for independence. 95. Paul Revere - A patriot known for his midnight ride to warn the colonial militia of the approaching British forces before the battles of Lexington and Concord. 96. King George III’s Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition - A 1775 declaration by King George III stating that the American colonies were in open rebellion, effectively rejecting all conciliatory measures.