Pakistan Studies Past Paper - Section 3 PDF

1 Section 3 Q. Describe the refugee problem. (4) The Radcliffe Boundary Award was announced on 16 August 1947, two days after partition, this caused many problems, refugees, and killings because some people saw themselves in the ‘wrong country’ after the Award bec...

1 Section 3 Q. Describe the refugee problem. (4) The Radcliffe Boundary Award was announced on 16 August 1947, two days after partition, this caused many problems, refugees, and killings because some people saw themselves in the ‘wrong country’ after the Award became official. Over 20 million people had migrated from India to Pakistan in the worst of medical conditions and were homeless. This was a serious issue for Pakistan to handle. Q. What was the Canal Water Dispute? (4) The Canal Water Dispute arose during the partition of Punjab; the Ravi, Beas and the Sutlej River in Pakistan were controlled by a series of headworks that lay in the part of Indian Punjab, major issues occurred over the Bari Doab Canal. Initially India had committed that it won’t interfere with Pakistan’s water supply but it later did on 1st April 1948. The Indus Water Treaty 1948 settled it temporarily and was officially settled in 1960. Q. Explain three reasons for the canal water dispute between India and Pakistan. (7) The Canal Water Dispute arose during the partition of Punjab; the Ravi, Beas and, Sutlej River in Pakistan, were controlled by a series of headworks that lay in the part of Indian Punjab, major issues occurred over the Bari Doab Canal. Initially, India had committed that it won’t interfere with Pakistan’s water supply but it later did on 1st April 1948. It threatened the entire Indus Plain and Pakistan’s economy. This was a problem for Pakistan because it was a new country and highly dependent on agriculture, water being the main raw material for growth was required, abruption in supplied water meant that Pakistan’s economic growth would be damaged and the newborn nation won’t survive. The partition also saw a huge wave of refugees and to supply them with food, agricultural development was needed which wasn’t possible without water, stopping of clean water would also increase the death rate and might as well lead of famines since Agriculture was stopped and the country didn’t have enough money for import of food. Q. Why was Pakistan faced with a refugee problem in 1947? (7) Many parts of India had already seen worst scenes of Hindu-Muslim riots just before partition in 1947. The Hindus and Sikhs in Eastern Punjab were particularly full with Anti-Muslim sentiments. In such areas, a large number of Muslims were ruthlessly killed; entire Muslim villages were destroyed. Women were disrespected Pakistan-Studies2059/01  2 and even children were slaughtered. There were reports that local Indian authorities were also supporting the violent mobs. Under such circumstances, the Muslims had no option except to seek refuge in a safe place and therefore they migrated to Pakistan on a large scale to escape the brutalities of the Indians. The boundary division was unjust; a number of Muslim-majority areas like Gurdaspur and Ferozpur were given to India where the Muslims were not feeling secure. When the Muslim ruler of Junagarh, a Hindu-majority area, decided to join Pakistan, India forcibly took over its territories putting the Muslims at risk to communal violence. Similarly, Kashmir had about 85% Muslim population but when its Hindu Maharajah decided to join India, fighting broke out against him. They were now vulnerable to the barbarities of Hindus and Pakistan was unable to help them across the border. They therefore, left their homes, lands and businesses and joined the migrating caravans towards Pakistan. These incidents further intensified the movement of refugees to Pakistan. Since partition was made on the religious lines, a number of Muslims migrated willingly to Pakistan. They could manage to move some of their belongings along with them. They preferred to live in a Muslim country. Q. Why did Pakistan face so many problems in the provision of education between 1947 and 1988? (7) Pakistani Governments has been facing many problems with the provision of education due to many reasons. According to independent estimates in 1998, less than 30% of the Pakistan population is literate, and female literacy is estimated at 14% nationally. This was due to lack of financial investment in education by successive Governments who viewed defence as being more important. During the first three decades after independence, education in Pakistan was accorded a very low official priority. In 1960, Pakistan was only spending 2% of budget on education which by 1990, had grown to 2.9%. However, even after the mass nationalization in the 1970s, state expenditure on education never rose above 3% of the budget. A major problem has faced primary education with serious under-funding compared to secondary and higher education. In the 5-Year-Plan 1956, 56% educational budget was allocated to secondary compared to only 18% for primary. Little money remained for non-staff costs to spend on the primary sector. A number of problems have, therefore, dogged all official attempts at improving the literacy rate. Rates of absent and drop-outs are very high. More than half the students joining primary school leave within 5 years. One-third of girls drop out within a year. Education is also very expensive in Pakistan. Children are expected to Pakistan-Studies2059/01  3 buy their own books and uniform, and many children drop out of schools. In the secondary sector many private schools have been formed which have been for the more wealthy parts of the population which further emphasizes the gap between the rich and the poor. However, educational reforms were enforced from time to time. In 1972, all private schools and colleges were nationalized. But the policy had a devastating effect on the standard of teaching and standard of education in the country. Q. Why was the division of armed forces and military assets a problem for Pakistan in 1947? (7) Pakistan was a new country and yet had to establish a military force. It could not go to war with India which was quite inevitable. The division of military assets was to be done at a ratio of 34:66. Since there were no weapons factories given to Pakistan, it had to start from scratch in this field. All 16 weapon factories were in India and had obsolete material and equipment. The military equipment that was sent to Pakistan would put Pakistan at a disadvantage in any future war with India which would be inevitable; it was completely cheap, damaged and unusable. Q. How successful was the Government of Pakistan in solving the problems of partition during 1947 and 1948? Explain your answer. (14) The Government of Pakistan was successful to some extent in solving the problems of partition during 1947 and 1948. It faced many difficulties when in it came into being in August 1947. The most important problem was the establishment of administration and the Central Government. There were no offices, equipment or workers. The offices were all set up in army barracks and residential buildings. However, through the guidance and confidence of Jinnah, this issue was settled and Jinnah and Liaqut Ali Khan became the Governor-General and Prime Minister respectively. The refugee problem was a very big issue. The Radcliffe Boundary Award was announced on 16 August 1947, two days after partition, this caused many problems, refugees and killings because people saw themselves in the ‘wrong country’ after the Awards became official. Over 20 million people had migrated from India to Pakistan in the worst of medical conditions and were homeless. According to the guidance of Jinnah, a separate department was made for the rehabilitation of refugees. Pakistan was a new country and yet had to establish a military force. It could not go to war with India which was quite inevitable. Division of military assets was to be done at a ratio of 34:66 but since no there were no weapons factories given to Pakistan-Studies2059/01  4 Pakistan it had to start from scratch in this field. All 16 factories were in India and had obsolete material and equipment. The military equipment that was sent to Pakistan would put Pakistan at a disadvantage in any future war with India; it was completely cheap, damaged and unusable. The Canal Water Dispute arose on 1st April 1948, when India stopped Pakistan’s water supply from rivers Beas, Ravi and Sutlej, which flow from India. A large agricultural area of Pakistan was badly affected. After lengthy negotiations and many treaties this problem was solved with the cooperation of the World Bank under the Indus Water Treaty in 1960. The annexation of 3 princely states, Junagarh, Hyderabad and Kashmir created big problems for Pakistan. The state of Junagarh was majority Non-Muslim but accepted to be a part of Pakistan. India forcefully occupied it with armed forces. The state of Hyderabad wanted to become independent but the Indian Army too, forcefully captured it. The state of Kashmir was majority Muslim but its Maharaja acceded to join India. India captured its capital Srinagar. The Kashmir issue still remains today as India disobeyed the resolution of the UN Security Council to arrange a fair and free plebiscite in Kashmir. The problem remains unsolved due to the stubbornness of India. It may be concluded that the Government of Pakistan was majorly successful in the handling of immediate issues and remained steadfast under Jinnah and Liaqut Ali Khan. Q. Who was Liaqut Ali Khan? (4) Liaqut Ali Khan was an important figure in the Pakistan Movement and served as Pakistan’s First Prime Minister till 1951. He was educated in Aligarh and Oxford Universities. Under him, Pakistan sided with Capitalism and the USA. He had to face internal unrest and resisted a coup during his reign. He died in 1951 with a disputed cause of death and was succeeded by Khawaja Nazimuddin. Q. Who was Khawaja Nazimuddin? (4) Khawaja Nazimuddin was a founding father of Pakistan and served as Pakistan’s first Bengali but second Prime Minister until 1954. He appointed Malik Ghulam Muhammad as Governor General. He struggled to keep stability in his Two Year Tenure and was forced to declare Emergency by Malik Ghulam Muhammad and Muhammad Ali Bogra was made Prime Minister. He died of illness in 1964. Q. Who was Muhammad Ali Bogra? (4) Muhammad Ali Bogra was a Bengali Politician who served as the Third Prime Minister of Pakistan. His foreign policies strengthened Pak-US relations but weakened Pak-USSR relations; he also attempted to strengthen ties with India and Pakistan-Studies2059/01  5 China. He introduced the One Unit Policy and laid the foundation of the 1956 Constitution. He retired in 1955 in favour of Chaudhary Muhammad Ali. He remained foreign minister in Ayub’s Cabinet until his death in 1963. Q. Who was Malik Ghulam Muhammad? (4) Malik Ghulam Muhammad was a finance minister and served as Pakistan’s Third Governor General. He created the 5 Year Plans covering Pakistan’s domestic nessacities and boosted the economy. He dismissed Khawaja Nazimuddin by declaring Emergency and dismissing the National Assembly. He retired in 1955 and died due to illness in 1956. Q. Who was Iskandar Ali Mirza? (4) Iskandar Ali Mirza was the great grandson of Nawab Siraj Ud Duala and the first President of Pakistan. He introduced the 1956 Constitution including the One Unit Policy of Pakistan by first bringing it under Martial Law. He was forced to resign by Ayub Khan, who declared Martial Law in 1958. He died and was buried in Iran in 1969. Q. What was the PRODA? (4) The Public and Representative Officer’s Disqualification Act was an Act for debarring of a Government officer from public office for a suitable period of time if he is judicially found guilty of misconduct in public offices or any representative capacity in any matter. Complaints could be made to the Governor General or Provincial Governors who could order an enquiry by judges. Anyone found guilty under the PRODA would be debarred from office. The objective of this law was to eliminate corruption. It was abolished in 1954. Q. What was the Objectives Resolution 1949? (4) The first attempt to set up a constitution was the Objectives Resolution 1949 which tried to pave the way towards a new constitution. It attempted to set out a plan to enshrine Islamic principles in an eventual constitution. It stated that the principles of justice and democracy shall be applied. Equality, freedom, tolerance and social justice shall be observed. Non-Muslims would have complete freedom to practice their religion. All human rights shall be guaranteed and the Judiciary shall be independent. This document was a blend of features of modernism and of Islam. However, this was opposed by East Pakistan due to Urdu becoming the National Language and unequal representation in assemblies despite the document. Q. Why was it so difficult to agree on a new constitution in 1950? (7) East Pakistan disagreed with the draft proposals in 1950 because it felt that its people were under-represented, especially given its large population, and it wanted Pakistan-Studies2059/01  6 representation equal to each of West Pakistan’s provinces. It also objected to Urdu being the main language, given its use of Bengali. There was opposition from local and provincial politicians, as they had no input under the proposals of approving of the power of the head of state and central Government. Religious groups also objected, as the new constitution wouldn’t put enough emphasis on Islam, and they argued that Pakistan should be governed on Islamic principles. Q. Describe the constitutional crises of 1954-55. (4) While Malik Ghulam Muhammad was out of the country, Bogra persuaded the assembly to limit the powers of the Governor General, the PRODA was repealed. While Bogra went away, Malik Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the assembly by declaring emergency. He later appointed a new cabinet, Bogra as PM but with lesser powers. Maulvi Tammizuddin went to Sindh High Court and ruling was against Malik Ghulam Muhammad who appealed to the Federal Court which decided in his favour. Q. What was the One Unit Policy? (4) In November 1954, Muhammad Ali Bogra had proposed that the 4 provinces and 10 princely states should be joined together to form West Pakistan. On 5th October 1955, Mirza Ghulam Muhammad passed an order unifying all of West Pakistan in the One Unit Scheme in order to create unity within Pakistan. Describe The 1956 Constitution It was Approved by the 2nd Constitution Assembly elected under the rule of Iskander Mirza.It was a compromise between the Muslim League and United Front. Pakistan was officially called Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Mirza became the president, it empowered the president to choose the Prime Minister and dissolve the National Assembly and the cabinet under his emergency powers. The president had to be a Muslim. There were equal seats of East and West Pakistan in the assembly under the one unit scheme It was abrogated in October 1958 under the first Martial law of Pakistans Q. Why were there so many Governments between 1951 and 1958? (7) One year after independence, Jinnah died on 11 September 1948 and Liaqut Ali Khan became Leader. In 1951, Liaqat Ali Khan was assassinated and Khawaja Pakistan-Studies2059/01  7 Nazimuddin took over as Prime Minister and Malik Ghulam Muhammad as Governor General. In October 1953, religious riots broke out regarding the heretical Ahmadiyyah Sect of Islam and the assemblies attempted to limit his powers. Ghulam Muhammad declared a State of Emergency and dissolved him and the elected body in the Assembly. Bogra was appointed Prime Minister and made the ‘Ministry of Talents’ Cabinet. In 1955, Ghulam resigned from GG due to health concerns and was replaced by General Iskandar Mirza. Mirza was not in favour of democracy and dismissed Bogra with Chaudhary Muhammad Ali. Chaudhary Muhammad Ali introduced the 1956 Constitution. The constitution promised a parliamentary system of Government but whilst the President held the power to intervene or even suspend the Assembly and gave equal seats to both wings of Pakistan in the Legislative Assembly. After a series of Prime Minister Power changes, Feroz Khan became the Prime Minister in 1957 and was able to stabilize the Nation. President Mirza felt threatened by Suharwardy and declared Martial Law. Ayub Khan became Chief Martial Law Administrator, suspended the 1956 Constitution, dissolved the assemblies, cancelled upcoming elections and disbanded the Muslim League. Mirza was arrested after disputing with Ayub Khan and became President. Q. How successful was Pakistan in establishing a constitution from 1947-1973? (14) The first attempt to set up a constitution was the Objectives Resolution 1949 which tried to pave the way towards a new constitution. It attempted to set out a plan to enshrine Islamic principles in an eventual constitution. It stated that the principles of justice and democracy shall be applied. Equality, freedom, tolerance and social justice shall be observed. Non-Muslims would have complete freedom to practice their religion. All human rights shall be guaranteed and the Judiciary shall be independent. This document was a good blend of features of modernism and of Islam. However, this was opposed by Ulemas because it was not Islamic enough and by East Pakistan due to Urdu becoming the National Language and unequal representation in assemblies despite the document. In 1952, the Basic Principles Committee presented a report which made firm steps towards an Islamic constitution by stating that the Head of State should be Muslim and that he would appoint a committee of Islamic specialists to ensure that all legislation is aligned with Islamic Laws. But it was also criticized because the official language issue was still not settled and East Pakistan was determined to oppose the selection of Urdu and also because of unfair distribution of seats. Political uncertainties and change meant that further discussions towards establishing a Pakistan-Studies2059/01  8 new constitution were put on hold for a few years until 1956. In 1956, a new constitution was passed. It declared both Urdu and Bengali National Languages. The Objectives Resolution was also included in it. Pakistan had its name changed to The Islamic Republic of Pakistan and became a Federal Government. The President must be Muslim older than 40 and is to have a 5 year tenure. No law could contradict the Quran and Ahadis. The Unicameral Legislature was established and a free Judicial System. Full autonomy and human rights were guaranteed. The constitution promised a parliamentary system of Government but whilst the President held the power to intervene or even suspend the Assembly. Still, the 1956 constitution was heavily criticized since it didn’t solve the political problems of Pakistan. East Pakistan was very unhappy at not having a majority in the Assembly that it believed its vast population deserved. The 1962 constitution increased the powers of the ruling elite which happened because the major landlords dominated the elections to the Basic Democracies and often used force or bribery to influence the results. The National Legislature could not pass a law without the President’s approval. Bengali and Urdu were recognized as the 2 national languages. The National Assembly sessions were to be held in both Dhaka and Islamabad. If the President were from West Pakistan the speaker of National Assembly was to be from East Pakistan. The constitution also upset the people of East Pakistan as they felt they were going to have little part in the governing of Pakistan and that the power was held by the military and civil officials of West Pakistan. In 1973, a new constitution became law. It mainly stated that Pakistan was a Federal State. There would be 2 houses, the Senate and the Assembly; the Assembly would be elected for 5 years and the members of the senate were to be nominated in equal numbers from all provinces. Each province had its own assembly, elected by Universal Adult Suffrage with the majority party forming the provincial Government. The National Assembly could only change the political leadership in the provinces by amending the constitution which required at least a 75% majority in a vote. The president’s orders had to be signed by the PM, both President and PM is to be Muslim. The leader of the majority winning party in the assembly would be PM and select a cabinet. All human rights were guaranteed. This constitution was liked by mostly all. It may be concluded that Pakistan was generally successful in making a constitution from 1947-1973. Even though East Pakistan could not be satisfied due to the unfairness of the Government, the constitution of 1973 was generally successful in satisfying the people and is still the constitution today. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  9 Q. Why did Ayub Khan declare Martial Law in 1958? (7) In 1956, the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan approved a constitution giving Pakistan Independent Status as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. President Iskandar Mirza’s rule became unpopular and gave Pakistan a weak image in controlling politics, mainly because there was a change of 4 Prime Ministers in 2 years and still discontent in the Government. Iskandar Mirza’s rule became weak in the eyes of the military so Ayub forced Iskandar to resign. On 10 October 1958, Iskandar Mirza declared Martial Law and dismissed Feroz Khan, the National Assembly and Provincial Legislatures. He dismissed the 1956 Constitution and called it ‘Unworkable’ and full of ‘dangerous compromises. He appointed General Ayub Khan as Chief Martial Law Administrator and nominated him to control the Nation as Prime Minister. On 27 October 1958, Ayub and his Generals forced Iskandar Mirza to resign and made Ayub the President. Iskandar Mirza wanted to clean his image and spoke, Ayub saw this as him conspiring. He was arrested and taken to Quetta and then exiled to London until his death in 1969 and was buried in Iran. Q. Describe the main features of the 1962 Constitution. (4) The 1962 Constitution set up a presidential type of Government and combined ‘democracy with discipline’. The President could be removed unless impeached. The National Legislature could not pass a law without the President’s approval. Bengali and Urdu were recognized as the 2 national languages. The National Assembly sessions were to be held in both Dhaka and Islamabad. If the President were from West Pakistan the speaker of National Assembly was to be from East Pakistan. Q. What was the Basic Democratic System of Ayub Khan? (4) The Basic Democratic System was introduced in 1959. It stated the establishment of 4 Tier Systems in which citizens elected Union Council Members who in turn elected District and Divisional members. 80,000 elected democrats would form the Electoral College for the election of the President and the members of the Central and Provincial Legislatures. Ayub asked these democrats for votes and became President in 1962. Q. What was the Green Revolution? (4) In the era of Ayub, agricultural reforms were introduced. 3 major dams were constructed for irrigation. A law was passed saying no farm could be smaller than 12.5 acres, smaller than 500 irrigated acres, and larger than 1000 un-irrigated acres. These reforms resulted in great food outputs and yields. Ayub called this success as the Green Revolution. Q. What was the Regional Cooperation of Development? (4) Pakistan-Studies2059/01  10 In the Decade of Development’s Industrial Reforms, an economic union was established between Pakistan, Iran and Turkey in 1964 to develop ties of Trade, Commerce and Industry. This union is known as the Regional Cooperation of Development or the RCD. Q. What was the Democratic Action Committee? (4) After losing the war, Ayub blamed Bhutto and made repressive policies against political parties and carried out widespread arrests. These repressive policies united the political parties which opposed him. 8 of these parties formed the Democratic Action Committee, which demanded for proper elections, the lifting of emergency powers and autonomy for East Pakistan. This opposition led to Ayub resigning in 1969. Q. Why was Islamabad made the new capital of Pakistan during the Decade of Development? (7) Karachi did not look appropriate as the capital city. It was a very noisy and congested city, which disturbed the working conditions of the Government. It was next to the sea and vulnerable for attacks. It had a very warm and humid climate and did not have the best appearances or conditions and nessacities. Thus, a movement looked appropriate. After research, it was seen that the Potwar Plateau region, where Islamabad now lies, has pleasant climate year long and it had huge potential for development. Ayub also wanted to be near the Army HQ, in the north, in case of the need of Martial Law. The Northern Areas were not as developed as the others, so a movement would also improve development. The construction of Islamabad started in 1961, established in 1966 and made capital in 1967. It is a carefully planned and modern city surrounded by mountains, with 8 distinct sectors, the Grand Faisal Mosque and declared the World’s Second Most Beautiful Capital City to Washington. Q. Why did Ayub Khan resign in 1969? (7) In 1965, Pakistan went to war with India over Kashmir. Neither side won but Ayub declared Pakistan’s victory. The Tashkent Treaty had no mention of the Kashmir issue; the main reason Pakistan started the war. Ayub put the blame on Bhutto for the losses in the war and Bhutto became his opposition. Due to Bhutto’s influence, many people opposed the Government by 1968. There were many accusations of election rigging and corruption. Agricultural outputs were rising but so were prices as well as widespread protests and violence. Ayub had to carry out widespread arrests, including that of Bhutto and was even target of a failed assassination attempt. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  11 Ayub made repressive policies against political parties and carried out widespread arrests. These repressive policies united the political parties which opposed him. 8 of these parties formed the Democratic Action Committee, which demanded for proper elections, the lifting of emergency powers and autonomy for East Pakistan. The growing opposition led to Ayub resigning in 1969 and gave control to General Yahya Khan under Martial Law. Q. Why is the tenure of Ayub Khan called ‘The Decade of Development’? (7) In the reign of Ayub Khan, specifically the Decade of Development, many reforms were introduced. The agricultural reforms were indeed very important and successful. A law was passed saying no farm could be smaller than 12.5 acres, smaller than 500 irrigated acres, and larger than 1000 un-irrigated acres. 3 large dams were constructed and farmers were loaned to create wells, this was to reduce the need for canal irrigation. Crop yields broke all previous records and food output largely increased. Ayub declared these reforms as the Green Revolution on these successes. Besides these, industrial reforms and development also took place, mainly through foreign aid. In 1962, an oil refinery was erected as well as a Mineral Development Corporation for the exploring of minerals. An Economic Union was also established with Iran and Turkey, the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD). As a result of these reforms, Pakistan’s economy grew by 7% and production increased rapidly. Development was also made on the Social and Educational Conditions of Pakistan. A new curriculum for schools was established as well as many new schools and colleges. 75,000 refugees were settled in newly built dwellings in Karachi. A law was passed that factory owners had to provide accommodation to their workers. The government tried to persuade Pakistani families to limit family size by using a family planning program which was US funded. More medical facilities were established to increase doctors and nurses. Q. Most successful reforms of Ayub Khan. (14) In the reign of Ayub Khan, specifically the Decade of Development, many reforms were introduced. Ayub Khan dismissed the 1956 Constitution and made his own 1962 Constitution in which he introduced the Basic Democracy System. It stated the establishment of 4 Tier Systems in which citizens elected Union Council Members who in turn elected District and Divisional members. 80,000 elected democrats would form the Electoral College for the election of the President and the members of the Central and Provincial Legislatures. It resulted unpopular and unsuccessful and Ayub changed back into Parliamentary System in 1969. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  12 The agricultural reforms were indeed very important and successful. A law was passed saying no farm could be smaller than 12.5 acres, smaller than 500 irrigated acres, and larger than 1000 un-irrigated acres. 3 large dams were constructed and farmers were loaned to create wells, this was to reduce the need for canal irrigation. Crop yields broke all previous records and food output largely increased. Ayub declared these reforms as the Green Revolution on these successes. Besides these, industrial reforms and development also took place, mainly through foreign aid. In 1962, an oil refinery was erected as well as a Mineral Development Corporation for the exploring of minerals. An Economic Union was also established with Iran and Turkey, the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD). As a result of these reforms, Pakistan’s economy grew by 7% and production increased rapidly. Development was also made on the Social and Educational Conditions of Pakistan. A new curriculum for schools was established as well as many new schools and colleges. 75,000 refugees were settled in newly built dwellings in Karachi. A law was passed that factory owners had to provide accommodation to their workers. The government tried to persuade Pakistani families to limit family size by using a family planning program which was US funded. More medical facilities were established to increase doctors and nurses. It may be concluded that the Agricultural Reforms of Ayub Khan were the most successful due to the fact that it had a great food output and attempts were made to avoid foreign aid and irrigation through Indian waters. These reforms proved to be the most successful. Q. What was Operation Searchlight? (4) In 1970, West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight to destroy all Bengali Opposition in East Pakistan within 1 month. The plan envisioned to take over all major cities and after that execute all sources of opposition. Bengali Resistance was not expected by Pakistan and this resulted in 10 million refugees poured into India. This plan angered the Bengalis and led to the creation of Bangladesh. Q. Why did Mujib Ur Rehman and the Awami League demand 6 points? (7) East Pakistan was in poor and difficult situations. There was political deprivation as a reason to the main factor on the formation of the Awami League and action being taken by Mujib Ur Rehman. East Pakistan had a larger population but had its politics controlled mainly by West Pakistan. They were also underrepresented in assemblies and cabinets and there was a high demand to fix this. Mujib and the AL, among the 6 points demanded for a directly elected Government, separate for the easy management of East Pakistan. It was also demanded for separate troops for East Pakistan due to the fact that there was only 10% Bengali in the army and that EP Pakistan-Studies2059/01  13 soldiers and officers were rudely treated and disrespected. East Pakistan was also economically deprived. The export of raw jute, mainly grown in EP was a main source of earnings. But these earnings were used more in West Pakistan than in East Pakistan and the labour workers were also deprived and there was near death poverty. The industrial units opened in EP belonged to owners in WP, so there was a massive flow of funds from EP to WP. On this factor, the Awami League put for the demand of separate currencies for both wings to ensure fairness of funds. The Awami League demanded a Federal type of Government; it demanded that a Federal Government was to only control defence and foreign policy and that all other decisions were to be made at provincial level. It demanded that provinces were to tax their people and the Federal Government shall only receive a share of the revenue collected, the Federal Government was not to tax people. It also demanded that each province was to set up its own trade agreements and control its money spent or earned through trade. Yahya Khan and all other WP politicians were not prepared to accept these 6 demands and thus, these points were rejected. Q. Reasons for the creation of Bangladesh in 1971. (7) East Pakistan’s geographical position made it difficult to administer. It was at a distance of 1600km from its West Wing with India in between. East Pakistan was often destroyed by Monsoon Storm and floods, especially Cyclone Bola in which Pakistan refused first Indian Aid and its own aid reached a week later. If West Pakistan was able to stay close and successfully administer East Pakistan, partition could have been avoided. East Pakistan was in poor and difficult situations. There was political deprivation as a reason to the main factor on the formation of the Awami League and action being taken by Mujib Ur Rehman. East Pakistan had a larger population but had its politics controlled mainly by West Pakistan. They were also underrepresented in assemblies and cabinets and there was a high demand to fix this. There was only 10% Bengali in the army and that EP soldiers and officers were rudely treated and disrespected. Even though the Awami League lawfully won the elections he was still not allowed to become the PM and all his 6 points were rejected. East Pakistan was also economically deprived. The export of raw jute, mainly grown in EP was a main source of earnings. But these earnings were used more in West Pakistan than in East Pakistan and the labour workers were also deprived and there was near death poverty. The industrial units opened in EP belonged to owners in WP, so there was a massive flow of funds from EP to WP. There was much more prosperity in WP while EP remained in poverty and difficulties. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  14 The most immediate reason was the defeat in the 1971 War. India declared support for the Bengalis against Pakistan and offered to train and arm them. Pakistan attacked India instead of East Pakistan and India sacked the whole East Pakistan. The Pakistani Army surrendered on 16 December 1971 and Bangladesh became independent with Mujib-Ur-Rehman as the first President. Q. Who was Zulfikar Ali Bhutto? (4) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was the President of Pakistan from 1971-1977. He was initially a part of Iskandar Mirza’s cabinet and then of Ayub Khan as foreign minister, which he left concerning being blamed by Ayub for the defeat in the 1965 war. He became opposition to Ayub and was a reason of his resignation. After the 1971 war, he took over as President after Yahya Khan resigned. He reigned until 1977 until Zia-Ul-Haq brought Martial Law and arrested him. He was cased and proved guilty for misusing the FSF to kill a political opponent and was hanged in Rawalpindi Jail on 4 April 1979. Q. Describe the features of the 1973 Constitution. (4) On 14 August 1973, the new constitution was applied. It stated Pakistan as the Islamic Republic and that both PM and President must be Muslims. The President’s orders had to be signed by the PM. 2 houses were made, the Assembly and the Senate. The leader of a party which won majority in the Assembly in would be the PM who would select his cabinet. All fundamental human rights were guaranteed. Q. What was the Federal Security Force? (4) It was a private military force which was made to assist the police. Bhutto used this force in many ways. He had J.A Rahim beaten, any person seen a threat to the Government would face pain. A case was put on Bhutto for using the FSF to kill a political opponent. He was proved guilty and was hanged. Some of this force’s officials were killed, pardoned and some escaped to other countries. Q. What was the Simla Agreement? (4) On 2 July 1972, Bhutto signed the Simla Agreement with the PM of India, Indira Gandhi. India agreed to return the prisoners of the 1971 War, in return that the Kashmir issue would be discussed between only Pakistan and India and not on any International Forums. This made Bhutto popular. Q. What was the Minorities Agreement? (4) In April 1950, there was a formal agreement, called the ‘Minorities Agreement’, signed between Liaqut Ali Khan and Nehru. According to the agreement, both Governments were responsible to protect the religious minorities in their states and to encourage them to stay on rather than to migrate. Q. Why did Bhutto come to power in 1971? (7) Pakistan-Studies2059/01  15 In 1958, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto joined Iskandar Mirza’s Cabinet as Commerce Minister. In 1963, he took over the post of Foreign Minister from Muhammad Ali Bogra. He joined Ayub Khan’s Cabinet during his rule and was the youngest Minister in Ayub Khan’s Cabinet. In June 1966, Bhutto left Ayub Khan’s Cabinet over differences concerning the Tashkent Agreement and because he was blamed by Ayub Khan for defeat in the 1965 war with India. Bhutto then became the leader and founder of the PPP and the main opposition point for Ayub Khan. Bhutto launched the Pakistan People’s Party after leaving Ayub’s Cabinet. In the general elections of December 1970, the PPP won a large majority in West Pakistan but failed to reach an agreement with Sheikh Mujib Ur Rehman, the majority winner from East Pakistan. After the defeat in the 1971 war and the separation of Bangladesh, Yahya Khan resigned and Bhutto took over as the President and Chief Martial Law Administrator on December 20, 1971. Q. Why did Zulfikar Ali Bhutto introduce nationalization policies? (7) Bhutto wanted to control Industrial output and raise the living standards of workers. Workers were also allowed to form unions. He wanted to erase the unequal division of industrial wealth, 20 houses owned 80% of Pakistan’s industrial wealth. He also wanted to reduce inflation from 25%. For these reasons he imposed nationalization. Pakistan’s public education system was not producing good results and workers for the Government jobs. Capable factory owners left uneducated servants as their deputies. Private industries and institutes were more successful than those of the Government. Because of this, Bhutto imposed nationalization to boost the economy and nationalized all private services. Q. Why did Zulfikar Ali Bhutto fall from power in 1979? (7) Bhutto called a General Election in 1977 and was confident of victory. Once the election was called, 9 opposing parties united against the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) and formed the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), with the goal to end PPP rule and enforce Islamic Law in Pakistan. The PNA gained much support through rallies but were often attacked by PPP supporters, to this the Government made a law which limited public gatherings to 5 people; this law was also used as an excuse to prevent increase of PNA support. The election resulted in a landslide victory for the PPP, out of 200 seats, the PPP won 154 and the PNA won only 38. The PNA accused the Government of election rigging and demanded new elections. Bhutto refused to agree on new elections and the PNA hosted massive protests against the Government. Seeing this, Bhutto offered fresh elections in disputed areas and to pacify the religious groups, banned gambling, alcohol sale and declared Friday as the weekly holiday. On 19 April he declared Martial Law in Pakistan-Studies2059/01  16 emergency and arrested all PNA leadership and 10,000 supporters. On 5 July, the army staged a coup, called Operation Fairplay, led by General Zia ul Haq and arrested all Political Leaders including Bhutto in one night. Zia ul Haq suspended the constitution and all assemblies and Pakistan started its 3rd Martial Law. Bhutto was released but then rearrested and put on trial for misusing the FSF police force to kill a political opponent; he was executed in Rawalpindi Jail on 4 April 1979. Q. Most successful reforms of Bhutto. (14) In the reign of Bhutto, many reforms were introduced. All had their own importance. Pakistan had the highest infant mortality rate and a very low life expectancy. To correct these conditions, he introduced a health scheme in which sale of medicines under brand names was banned, medicines could by bought without prescription and medicine prices were reduced. He introduced Rural Health Centres and Basic Health Units in urban areas to provide wide-spread facilities. He made housing districts to accommodate poor and refugees. He also introduced educational reforms with the aims to educate all, destroy ignorance, raise confidence and raise the then 25% literacy rate. Many institutes were made to provide free education. However, these reforms did not bring any major changes. Besides these, agricultural reforms were also introduced. The land ceiling was cut from 500 irrigated acres to 250 acres and from 1000 un-irrigated acres to 500 acres. Mechanization was promoted. The law was made that surplus land could be sold to smaller farmers. This resulted in bribery and corruption in the agricultural industry. Bhutto also brought about industrial reforms. He wished to raise the working and living standards of labour and workers. The aims were to reduce inflation from 25% and gain more economic progress. He introduced nationalization policies which brought all agricultural, industrial factories and banking and insurance sectors under the Government. Inflation was reduced to 6% but resulted in closure of many companies. It may be concluded that the Social Reforms were the most important during the reign of Bhutto. The industrial and agricultural reforms brought average results but the social reforms had comparatively less drawbacks. Q. What was Operation Fairplay? (4) On 5 July 1979, the army staged a coup, called Operation Fairplay, led by General Zia Ul Haq and arrested all Political Leaders including Bhutto in one night. Zia Ul Haq suspended the constitution and all assemblies and Pakistan started its 3rd Pakistan-Studies2059/01  17 Martial Law. Q. What was the Ojhri Camp Incident? (4) On 10 April 1988, an army weapons dump exploded at the Ojhri Camp. The location was in between a densely populated area between Islamabad and Rawalpindi; hundreds were killed while thousands were injured. Q. What was the Afghan Miracle? (4) On 25 December 1979, the USSR led an invasion of Afghanistan. General Zia sent soldiers to help the resistance of their Afghani Muslim ‘brothers’. The US immediately backed up and used Pakistan as its base for Anti-Soviet Activities and aided Pakistan. The US gave Pakistan large sums of funds and aid and Pakistan was able to not just help Afghanistan but managed to upgrade the nation immensely and aid other Muslim countries. Q. What was the Movement for Restoration of Democracy? (4) General Zia announced that elections would be held without political parties, especially the PPP, so that he may remain leader. The opposing parties all united to form an opposition movement known as the Movement for Restoration of Democracy. Its main aim was to have free elections with political parties and candidates. Q. Why did Zia introduce his Islamisation Package? (7) General Zia-Ul-Haq was a Pro-Islamic leader and attempted to stabilize the Nation by strict Shariat Laws. He established the Federal Shariat Court in 1979 to consider conformity of existing laws and judgments with Islamic laws. He introduced Hudood Ordinances giving Islamic punishments to people involved in blasphemy, slander, drinking, gambling, theft and adultery. He also introduced the Council of Islamic Ideology to suggest ways for bringing the legal system closer to Islamic ideology. Zia wanted to help the poor through Islamic Taxes. Zakat and Ushr Ordinance was introduced imposing 2.5% wealth tax and 5% tax on agricultural income respectively. To give an Islamic colour to Pakistan’s society, Islamiat and Pakistan Studies were made compulsory subjects in the schools and colleges. Memorizers of the Holy Quran were given extra marks in the Civil Service examinations. Arabic language was promoted through TV and Radio programs. No woman was allowed to appear on TV without a head scarf. Q. How successful was Zia-Ul-Haq in his era? (14) General Zia-Ul-Haq was a Pro-Islamic leader and attempted to stabilize the Nation by strict Shariat Laws. He established the Federal Shariat Court in 1979 to consider conformity of existing laws and judgments with Islamic laws. He introduced Hudood Pakistan-Studies2059/01  18 Ordinances giving Islamic punishments to people involved in blasphemy, slander, drinking, gambling, theft and adultery. He also introduced the Council of Islamic Ideology to suggest ways for bringing the legal system closer to Islamic ideology. Zia wanted to help the poor through Islamic Taxes. Zakat and Ushr Ordinance was introduced imposing 2.5% wealth tax and 5% tax on agricultural income respectively. Islamiat and Pakistan Studies were made compulsory subjects in the schools and colleges. Memorizers of the Holy Quran were given extra marks in the Civil Service examinations. Arabic language was promoted through TV and Radio programs. No woman was allowed to appear on TV without a head scarf. His Islamisation policies were not very successful as they were not enforced and interest was simply renamed profit in banking. In economic reforms, Zia denationalized all industries. Some were returned to owners and incentivises were given in form of import of raw material and machinery. Foreign investment was welcomed and full protection was granted. A steel mill was completed and the Karakorum Highway was built. Production showed an increase and his policies proved successful. Internationally, Pakistan got membership of NAM in 1979. Zia attended the Havana Conference and clarified Pakistan’s Nuclear Policy and other issues. Zia attended the OIC meetings and gave full support for the Arab cause in Palestine. Zia supported the Afghan resistance in the USSR invasion of Afghanistan and the US immediately came to aid, this resulted in the Afghan Miracle and economic improvement in Pakistan. He established a Majlis e Shoora Assembly and held non- party based elections in which a re-elected Assembly was formed. Khan Junejo became PM and Martial Law was lifted but later dissolved in 1988. Zia promised fresh elections in Oct. 1988 but died in a plane bomb blast. It may be concluded that Zia’s international policies resulted most successful mainly due to the developments resulted from the Afghan Miracle. Q. How successful have Governments been in Islamisation in Pakistan? Explain your answer. (14) The Objectives Resolution, passed in March 1949, made it clear that the constitution of Pakistan would be based on Islamic laws of social justice, equality and religious freedom. These provisions were not enough to satisfy the religious wings of the country. They wanted complete implementation of the Shariat Laws. Together with other reasons, the resolution was withdrawn in November 1950 for further considerations. When the first constitution of Pakistan was prepared in 1956, it changed the name of Pakistan to Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The Religious Advisory Board was Pakistan-Studies2059/01  19 retained for monitoring the legislation. The religious scholars would ensure conformity of new laws with the Quran and Hadis. Ayub Khan was a bit liberal. He introduced Muslim Family Laws Ordinance according to which marriages and divorces were to be registered and minimum age limits were defined for marriage. In spite of opposition from religious wings, these laws were imposed. He established Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology to advise him the religious aspects of policies. He also founded Islamic Research Institute. But these institutes were just symbolic; he never welcomed their proposals. In the 1973 constitution, Islam was declared to be state religion. The president and the prime minister were to be Muslims and they must believe in the finality of Prophet Muhammad. But no consideration was given to full implementation of Shariat Laws. Bhutto also declared the Ahmadiyyah Sect to be Non-Muslims and produced measures to reduce their presence. After the 1977 elections when the Pakistan National Alliance was protesting against rigging, Bhutto tried to pacify the religious factions by banning gambling, restricting sale of alcohol and declaring Friday to be the weekly holiday. These were just desperate actions. General Zia-Ul-Haq tried to be a Pro-Islamic leader. He established the Federal Shariat Court in 1979 to consider conformity of existing laws and judgments with Islamic laws. He introduced Hudood Ordinances giving Islamic punishments to people involved in drinking, gambling, theft and adultery. He also introduced the Council of Islamic Ideology to suggest ways for bringing the legal system closer to Islamic ideology. Zakat and Ushr Ordinance was introduced imposing 2.5% wealth tax and 5% tax on agricultural income respectively. To give an Islamic colour to Pakistan’s society, Islamiat and Pakistan Studies were made compulsory subjects in the schools and colleges. Memorizers of the Holy Quran were given extra marks in the Civil Service examinations. Arabic language was promoted through TV and Radio programs. No woman was allowed to appear on TV without a head scarf. But there were a number of weak sides of Zia’s Islamisation program. Only a small part of Islamic Legal System was enforced. There were misappropriations of Zakat fund, the Federal Shariat Court could not replace the Pakistan Penal Code, Ushr was not taken from landowners and Islamic punishments were rarely exercised. When it comes to conclusion, it can be said that the Governments have not been successful in the Islamisation of Pakistan between 1947 and 1988. Some laws seem to be implemented under pressure from certain circles, and once announced, no serious efforts have been made to implement them in true sense. Q. Which of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic policies? (14) Pakistan-Studies2059/01  20 Liaquat Ali Khan was able to successfully eliminate early problems faced by Pakistan. He made the first move towards constitutional development with his Objectives Resolution in 1949. It stated that the constitution should observe the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice laid down by Islamic Laws. Minorities and the poor were to be protected. It contained several references to Islam as it tried to counter criticisms from the Ulemas that the new state was not Islamic enough. The Objectives Resolution formed the basis for the draft constitution. The proposals came in for much criticism. Religious groups complained that the constitution was not sufficiently Islamic. He also managed to keep the economy going and produced surplus budgets for the new state. He was assassinated in 1951 and could not fully carry out his plans. Malik Ghulam Muhammad became the third governor-general of Pakistan. He was responsible for the six-year plan for Pakistan covering agriculture, fuel and power, industry and mining, transport and communications. It did play an important part in bringing about economic development in Pakistan. A major processing plant was opened at Narayanganj. However, several problems, such as food shortages and a drought, were going on in Pakistan at that time that hampered development. Rioting also followed. Not much constitutional development could take place because of these problems. Malik Ghulam Muhammad had to resign in 1955 because of his ill health. Iskandar Mirza then took over as Governor General and introduced the new Constitution in 1956. In the constitution, he was able to become the president. The constitution was to last only two years before President Mirza declared martial law and scrapped the new constitution. He then introduced the One Unit policy into the 1956 Constitution through Bogra, which was an order unifying all of West Pakistan. He claimed that the unification would bring about greater efficiency and development in East Pakistan. In introducing his policy, he prevented East Pakistan gaining a majority in the Assembly. His rule became increasingly unpopular and lost the support of many leading politicians. He was threatened by Suharwardy’s plan and declared Martial Law in 1958. Ayub Khan came to power after declaring Martial Law in 1958 and remained President till 1969. His 11 year tenure is referred to as ‘The Decade of Development’ in which he introduced heaps of new reforms. In agriculture, the first land size restrictions and modern farming methods were introduced as well as the 1960 Indus Water Treaty and 4 New Dams, effective outputs were achieved and Ayub called this the Green Revolution. In industry, many new factories and units were established. Many housing, educational and medical districts were established and Pakistan-Studies2059/01  21 Islamabad was built and made the new Capital City. His policies resulted in oppositions and he resigned in 1969. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power after Yahya Khan resigned after failure in the 1971 War. He introduced and expanded upon the policies of Ayub Khan. In agriculture, he adjusted the land size ceiling, restrictions on selling of lands and introduced mechanization; however these resulted in corruption among farmers. In industry, he passed laws to improve working and living conditions of workers and to control flow of funds, he nationalized all industries. Inflation was reduced to 6% but also resulted in decline of companies. He made medicines available without prescriptions, reduced prices and expanded health facilities. He was arrested and executed by General Zia when he brought Martial Law in 1979. Zia Ul Haq brought about Martial Law in 1977 and ruled till 1988. He firstly had Bhutto found guilty and executed. In his tenure, he promoted Islamic Values under the Hudood Ordinance, Zakat and Ushr Ordinance, Interest Free Banking, Shariat Courts and must teaching of Pakistan Studies and Islamiat. Zia denationalized the industries but did not have any effective results. During the Russian led Afghan Invasion, he supported the Afghans and let 3 Million Afghan Refugees in Pakistan, which led to the widespread use of weapons and drugs. Thus, Zia was not successful in domestic policies and could not enforce Islamic Laws. Benazir and Nawaz Sharif Who was Benazir Bhutto Pakistan-Studies2059/01  22 Q. What was the Pucca Qila Massacre? (4) On 27 May 1990, Sindh Government launched a crackdown in Hyderabad, the centre of MQM power. A shoot-on-sight curfew was imposed, and a police house- to-house search began. The muhajirs protested at this treatment and fighting broke out. 31 women and children were killed, leading to retaliations in Karachi and elsewhere and over 300 more deaths. Q. Why did Benazir Bhutto fall from office in 1990? (7) The president of Pakistan, Ghulam Ishaq Khan, dismissed the Government of Benazir Bhutto on 6 August 1990. He said that the Government had failed in maintaining law and order situation in the Sindh province. There was serious violence in Hyderabad and Karachi in which hundreds of people lost their lives. The Government was inefficient and did not deliver good governance. There was Pakistan-Studies2059/01  23 decline in the economy and the rate of unemployment increased. The Government was also involved in financial corruption. It gave loans to party workers who had no skills or experience in running their businesses. She was accused that her husband, Asif Ali Zardari, and her father-in-law, Hakim Ali Zardari, received massive kickbacks in local and international deals. It is also important to mention that Benazir Bhutto was not at good terms with the president and military establishment. Q. Why did Nawaz Sharif fall from office in 1993? (7) Nawaz majorly strained Pakistan’s economy. He attempted to solve Pakistan’s unemployment issue by providing cheap loan to men to buy his imported taxis, only few loans were repaid. He tried to finance major investment projects which required foreign aid. The BCCI Bank became involved in corruption and was closed resulting in loss of large investments. There were many blames of corruption. In 1992, the Cooperative Societies Scandal occurred in which millions of people lost investment money because it was all given to the Ittefaq Group of Nawaz, the money was repaid but damaged his reputation. Opposition increased after Nawaz passed the 12th Amendment ordering Pakistanis to turn in their weapons and was opposed for ‘suppressing fundamental rights’. Nawaz came into conflict with President Ishaq Khan which resulted in him being dismissed from office by the Eighth Amendment. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  24 Q. Why did Benazir fall from office for a second time in 1996? (7) Benazir succeeded Zulfikar, but had a feud with Nusrat Bhutto who wanted Mir Murtaza as head of PPP and successor as PM on his return from long exile in 1993. He put up fierce opposition against her Government and against Asif Ali Zardari. Mir Murtaza was killed in 1996 near his house by Sindh Police, this high profile lawlessness justified Farooq Ahmed Leghari’s actions of dismissing her Government. Nawaz Sharif of the PMLN gave her fierce opposition. He along with Mir Murtaza Bhutto organized opposition against her, and started the ‘Train March’ from Karachi to Peshawar in 1994-1995. Nawaz was able to gather much attention, and targeted the poor economic performance of Benazir’s Government and Zardari’s corruption. He also organized labour and industrial strikes in 1994. This spread of violence and killing in major city under these strikes forced her to arrest her opposition leaders, this made her politically weak and unpopular and led to Leghari dismissing her. She clashed with the Superior courts and their judges. In 1996, the Supreme Court and 4 Provincial High Courts ordered the sacking of 24 judges appointed by her Government The Supreme Court further ordered the Federal Government to appoint judges on permanent basis rather than on an acting basis and also to take seniority of judges into account with their appointments. This dismissal created a political crisis as two highest pillars of state were in a dispute thus making the whole political system weaker and invited criticism, lending strength to her opposition. Q. Why did Nawaz Sharif fall from office for a second time in 1996? (7) The Shariat Bill was passed on October 9, 1998 by a two-third majority. This bill empowered the Prime Minister to enforce what he thought was right and to prohibit what he considered was wrong in Islam and the Shariat on the basis of the Islamic quote ‘enjoining right and forbidding wrong’, irrespective of what the Constitution or any judgment of the court said. It stated that the Federal Pakistan-Studies2059/01  25 Government shall be under an obligation to take steps to enforce the Shariat, to establish Salat, to administer Zakat, to eradicate corruption at all levels and to provide justice in accordance with the Quran and Ahadis. It was opposed by 16 MNAs, including the Jamat-e-Islami, five independents, as well as the Senate. The MQM abstained from voting. It was highly opposed and damaged Nawaz Sharif’s reputation. In April 1999, Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan Government denied any involvement but then admitted. In May, India launched a counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts crossed into Pakistani Air Space and one was shot down. During May and June 1999, Pakistani forces were winning but Nawaz Sharif was persuaded by the US President Clinton to withdraw all Pakistani forces from Indian held territory behind the Line of Control. While retreating, the Indians opened fire without warning which resulted in many deaths. And to top it, Nawaz Sharif blamed General Musharaf for the losses and defeat, which created opposition between the two. Finally, while Parvez Musharaf was out on a visit to Sri Lanka, Sharif without telling, replaced him as General. On top of that, while he was returning from Sri Lanka his plane was ordered to be sacked by Sharif and denied landing. Parvez Musharaf noticed and contacted the army. Before his plane landed, the army had sealed off all Government courts, offices and put Sharif under house-arrest. Thus, upon his return, he became the new leader of Pakistan’s 4th period of Martial Law. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  26 Q. How successful was Benazir Bhutto in ruling during 1988-1990 and 1993-1996? (14) Pakistan-Studies2059/01  27 Q. What problems did Nawaz Sharif face as Prime Minister during the 1990s? (4) Nawaz Sharif faced opposition from the PPP of Benazir Bhutto. He was unable to keep the religious communities pleased and maintain the economy. He carried out nuclear tests, which ruined the reputation of Pakistan and his own. He also faced criticism on the failure in the 1997 war and threw the blame on General Musharaf who then became an opposition to him. He tried to sack Musharaf in Sri Lanka but was overthrown and Musharaf became the leader of Pakistan’s fourth Martial Law. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  28 Q. What was the Cooperative Societies Scandal? (4) In 1992, Cooperatives societies accepted deposits from members and can legally make loans only to members for purposes that are to the benefit of the society and its members. However, mismanagement of these societies led to a collapse in which millions of Pakistanis lost immense money. In Sharif’s native Punjab 700,000 people mostly poor people lost all their savings when the states cooperatives societies went bankrupt. It was soon discovered that the societies had granted billions of rupees to the Ittefaq Group of Nawaz Sharif. Though the Ittefaq hurriedly repaid the loans the Prime Minister’s reputation was severely damaged. Q. What was the Anti-Defection Bill? (4) The Anti-Defection Bill was a structural reform to end the practice of switching party loyalties and blackmailing party leadership for ministerial slots, bank loans and other concessions. It was passed as the Fourteenth Amendment on 1 July 1997. Q. What was the Shariat Bill? (4) The Shariat Bill was passed on October 9, 1998 by a two-third majority. This bill empowered the Prime Minister to enforce what he thought was right and to prohibit what he considered was wrong in Islam and the Shariat on the basis of the Islamic quote ‘enjoining right and forbidding wrong’, irrespective of what the Constitution or any judgment of the court said. It stated that the Federal Government shall be under an obligation to take steps to enforce the Shariat, to establish Salat, to administer Zakat, and to eradicate corruption at all levels and to provide substantial socio-economic justice in accordance with the principles of Islam, as laid down in the Quran and Ahadis. This bill was opposed by 16 MNAs, including the Jamat-e-Islami, five independents as well as the Senate. The MQM abstained from voting. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  29 Q. What was the Kargil Conflict? (4) In April 1999, Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan Government denied any involvement but then admitted. In May, India launched a counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts crossed into Pakistani Air Space and one was shot down. During May and June 1999, Pakistani forces were winning but Nawaz Sharif was persuaded by the US President Clinton to withdraw all Pakistani forces from Indian held territory behind the Line of Control. While retreating, the Indians opened fire without warning which resulted in many deaths. Nawaz Sharif blamed General Musharaf for the losses and defeat. Q. Describe Parvez Musharaf’s coup. (4) In 1999, Nawaz tried to blame Musharaf for defeat in the Kargil War and Musharaf showed opposition. Nawaz tried to sack Musharaf’s plane when he was returning from Sri Lanka by not letting it land. Musharaf called the military with orders to seal all Assemblies and Courts and overthrew the Government. He declared Martial Law and took over. Q. Why did General Parvez Musharaf come to power in 1999? (7) The Shariat Bill was passed on October 9, 1998 by a two-third majority. This bill empowered the Prime Minister to enforce what he thought was right and to prohibit what he considered was wrong in Islam and the Shariat on the basis of the Islamic quote ‘enjoining right and forbidding wrong’, irrespective of what the Constitution or any judgment of the court said. It stated that the Federal Government shall be under an obligation to take steps to enforce the Shariat, to establish Salat, to administer Zakat, to eradicate corruption at all levels and to provide justice in accordance with the Quran and Ahadis. It was opposed by 16 MNAs, including the Jamat-e-Islami, five independents, as well as the Senate. The Pakistan-Studies2059/01  30 MQM abstained from voting. It was highly opposed and damaged Nawaz Sharif’s reputation. In April 1999, Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan Government denied any involvement but then admitted. In May, India launched a counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts crossed into Pakistani Air Space and one was shot down. During May and June 1999, Pakistani forces were winning but Nawaz Sharif was persuaded by the US President Clinton to withdraw all Pakistani forces from Indian held territory behind the Line of Control. While retreating, the Indians opened fire without warning which resulted in many deaths. And to top it, Nawaz Sharif blamed General Musharaf for the losses and defeat, which created opposition between the two. Finally, while Parvez Musharaf was out on a visit to Sri Lanka, Sharif without telling, replaced him as General. On top of that, while he was returning from Sri Lanka his plane was ordered to be sacked by Sharif and denied landing. Parvez Musharaf noticed and contacted the army. Before his plane landed, the army had sealed off all Government courts, offices and put Sharif under house-arrest. Thus, upon his return, he became the new leader of Pakistan’s 4th period of Martial Law. FOREIGN RELATIONS Q. What was CENTO? (4) CENTO or Central Treaty Organization was an agreement formed by Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan and the UK. The US remained as a spectator. It established economic and military ties with its members. It was dissolved in 1979. Q. What was SEATO? (4) SEATO or South Asia Treaty Organization was joint defence treaty in which Pakistan joined in 1954. Under it, if a member country is attacked by a Communist Nation; all members shall aid it in defence. Pakistan left in 1972. SEATO failed and was dissolved on 30 July 1977 due to withdrawal of other nations. Q. What was the U2 Incident? (4) On 1 May 1960, an American U2 Spy Plane took off from Peshawar and was shot down over the USSR by a Soviet Missile. The pilot, Gary Powers, parachuted but was captured alive. The US lied and claimed that it was a plane checking weather conditions over Turkey; however, they did not know the pilot survived and had admitted to spying and an evidence film was found on the plane. The US refused to apologise and this resulted in bad relations with the USSR and cancelling of the Summit Meeting. Q. How did Pakistan make USA into making an alliance in 1949? (4) Pakistan-Studies2059/01  31 After partition in 1947, Pakistan decided to ally itself with USA. But at this time, USA was working towards an anti-communist alliance with India. Liaqut Ali khan was frustrated by the US attitude towards an alliance with Pakistan. He accepted the offer to visit Soviet Union in 1949. He was successful in forcing the US into closer alliance. An offer came immediately to visit the USA and Liaqut Ali Khan made his visit in 1950. He made arrangements for a Pakistan Embassy to be built in USA and the alliance was established. Q. Why did Pakistan leave SEATO in 1972? (7) Pakistan had joined SEATO in 1954. But due to certain reasons Pakistan was forced to withdraw itself from SEATO. When Pakistan signed the treaty, the United States warned that the Pact only applied to communist aggression so Pakistan could not hope to use treaty if attacked by India. The decision of the Foreign Minister, Zafarullah Khan, to sign the treaty was contested by the Government, and it was not until January 1955 that government of Pakistan agreed to ratify the treaty. Therefore, weaknesses were apparent. Moreover, Pakistan had tried to secure further aid as a result of its membership of SEATO and pushed for a permanent military force to be established to protect all member states. Neither of these moves was successful, as the other members refused to agree. Pakistan’s disenchantment with the treaty increased when SEATO did not support Pakistan in either of its wars with India. It was the Bangladesh crisis in 1971 which finally led Bhutto to declare the withdrawal of Pakistan from SEATO in 1972. Q. Why did Pakistan join the UN in 1947? (7) Firstly, as a new-born independent country, Pakistan was anxious to be recognized as an independent country in the world. Moreover, since India was already a member of UN even before 1947, Pakistan was also keen to get its membership. As a sovereign state, it was important for Pakistan to join the UN to make its identity accepted by the world. Secondly, just after the partition Pakistan was faced with the problem of the accession of the states of Junagarh, Hyderabad and Kashmir. It was vital for Pakistan to seek the membership in order to present her case before the Security Council effectively. Furthermore, on 1st April 1948, India had shut off the water supplies to Pakistan (Canal Water Dispute). So to find solutions to such problems, Pakistan joined the UN. The UN supported Pakistan by helping it draw the Indus Water Treaty with India with the help of World Bank in 1960. Thirdly, Pakistan was keen to play its role in supporting the independence struggle Pakistan-Studies2059/01  32 of several other Asian and African countries. So to play its role as a peaceful nation against colonization, racial discrimination, territorial and regional aggression, Pakistan joined the UN in 1947. Q. Why did Pakistan choose to support the Palestinian cause? (7) Pakistan has been supporting Palestinian cause for three important reasons. Firstly, even before the partition, Muslims of the subcontinent had supported the cause of Palestinians and had rendered political, moral and material support to them. The spirit of Islamic brotherhood continued even after the partition. The torching of Al- Aqsa Mosque in 1969 by Jews added fuel to the fire. Secondly, one of the cornerstones of Pakistan’s foreign policy was the support of suppressed nations. Pakistan has always been against oppression, colonialism, discrimination and had supported the right of self-determination of every nation. Pakistan has always condemned Israel and supported the Palestinians on all international forums. Thirdly, Pakistan has not recognized Israel. Ever since the emergence of Israel state in 1948, Pakistan has opposed the unjust and unfair policy of western powers that arranged and supported the settlement of Jews from all parts of the world or unlawfully occupied Arab lands. Pakistan has risen on the forum of OIC for the rights of Palestinian people and withdrawal of Israeli forces from the occupied territories. Q. How successful have Pakistan-India relations been? (14) Given the historical background to partition, the dispute over assets and Kashmir conflict, it is perhaps not surprising that India-Pakistan relations have rarely been good. The relations between the two states have mainly been plagued by failure. Since partition, the main thorn between the good relations has been the Kashmir issue. Kashmir has been the main bone of contention between the two over which the two sides had fought various wars. In 1948, there was a war because of the forceful accession of Hindu Maharaja to India. UNO ordered a cease-fire, promising to hold plebiscite, but over till now, no such plebiscite has been organized. In 1965, Pakistan saw India’s defeat in the Indo-China Border War and decided to go to war with India over Kashmir. The Pakistan Army managed to resist the Indian Army and was declining; the UN declared ceasefire and the Tashkent Treaty was signed between the 2 Nations. The two sides also went to a war in 1971 over the Bengali opposition. India had the golden chance to cut down it rivals. They availed the opportunity and separated the two wings of Pakistan. These 2 wars kept hostile relations. India also had grievances over Pakistan’s involvement in the Defence Pact with USA, but the USA reassured India that this was only against any communist aggression. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  33 Pakistan was shocked when India tested its nuclear devices in Rajasthan in 1974. As Pakistan’s relations with India further deteriorated, both countries stepped up their nuclear development programmes. In May 1998, India shocked the world by testing five nuclear devices. Just a few weeks later, Pakistan detonated its own nuclear devices in Ras Koh hills. This initiated the nuclear arms race between the two states which continues to this date. The Kargil Conflict further pumped up the Indo-Pakistan hostility. In April 1999, Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan Government denied any involvement but then admitted. In May, India launched a counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts crossed into Pakistani Air Space and one was shot down. During May and June 1999, Pakistani forces were winning but Nawaz Sharif was persuaded by the US President Clinton to withdraw all Pakistani forces from Indian held territory behind the Line of Control. While retreating, the Indians opened fire without warning which resulted in many deaths. In April 1950, there was a formal agreement, called the ‘Minorities Agreement’, signed between Liaqut Ali Khan and Nehru. According to the agreement, both Governments were responsible to protect the religious minorities in their states and to encourage them to stay on rather than to migrate. Moreover, another agreement had also been reached in December 1948 which allowed for a neutral tribunal to demarcate the exact borders between East Bengal and Assam. The Tashkent Agreement of 1966 after the 1965 war helped the two states to agree to resolve disputes peacefully. The Simla Agreement was also a major step in developing good ties between the two states. India agreed to free 90,000 war prisoners of Pakistan and it was agreed that the Kashmir Issue would not be discussed on international forums. The 1960 Indus Water Treaty also helped in establishment of good relations. It may be concluded that the Pakistan-India relations have been unsuccessful, mainly due to the Kashmir Issue and the Nuclear power race. Q. How successful have Pakistan-USA relations been? (14) After partition in 1947, Pakistan decided to ally itself with USA. But at this time, USA was working towards an anti-communist alliance with India, so it was sometime before they embraced an alliance with Pakistan with any enthusiasm. During independence struggle, the USA had often talked of need of unity between Muslims and Hindus, but Muslims wanted a separate homeland, so they were disturbed by this. It also took several years before USA sent an ambassador to Pakistan. Liaqut Pakistan-Studies2059/01  34 Ali khan was frustrated by the US attitude towards an alliance with Pakistan. He accepted the offer to visit Soviet Union in 1949. He was successful in forcing the US into closer alliance. An offer came immediately to visit the USA and Liaqut Ali Khan made his visit in 1950. He made arrangements for a Pakistan Embassy to be built in USA. India was reluctant to sign an anti-communist alliance in return for military and economic aid. Agreement was signed and American aid began to flow into Pakistan. The relations became warm and good. In 1954, Pakistan and USA signed Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement. In same year SEATO was set up. Pakistan also joined, but the decision faced opposition from within the Government so the treaty was ratified until 1955. But Pakistan soon realized that its membership was of little importance as treaty only applied to help against communist aggression. So Pakistan was received no support in its wars against India. In 1972, Bhutto withdrew Pakistan from the organization. In 1955, the Baghdad pact was also signed which was renamed the CENTO after Iraq left in 1959 because of a revolution. However, despite regular meetings, the group never developed a permanent structure or a system for raising troops for mutual defence. USA supported it, but never actually joined. To sum up, these treaties explain why Pakistan was called the ‘most allied ally’ of USA in 1950s. However, during 1960s and 1970s relations were often strained. In 1962, China went to a war with India. As China was communist so USA provided military aid to help India fight. Pakistan was angered over this because USA did not consult Pakistan before providing aid. In 1962, Ayub Khan visited China and in 1965 he visited the USSR. As both were communist, so these visits displeased USA. Pakistan was not provided any help or special aid during its wars with India by USA. Ayub allowed them to build air bases in Pakistan and remained loyal to USA even after the embarrassing ‘U2 Affair’. But when he was deposed and replaced by Bhutto, Americans became concerned as he was not as pro-American as his predecessors; he also started the Nuclear Program and talked against America in the OIC of 1974. When Zia came, relations reached rock bottom as Americans did not approve of military regimes. In 1979, the US Embassy in Islamabad was burned. USA accused Zia of complicity in the attack. It also recalled many of its senior officials and all aid programmes were cancelled. However, during the same year, situation changed overnight when the USSR attacked Afghanistan. USA began to provide military and economic aid to Pakistan to help it buy modern US weapons and also to support Afghan rebels. Relations became very good and warm. Pakistan enjoyed rapid economic development and became leading military nation in the region. But when peace agreements were signed in 1988, Pakistan lost its strategic importance to Pakistan-Studies2059/01  35 USA. Aid was reduced dramatically which became a big problem for new Government of Benazir Bhutto. Americans were previously concerned about Pakistan’s nuclear programme. Bhutto had to work to maintain the relationship with the USA as American officials were not convinced that Pakistan had no nuclear weapons. In 1985, the Pressler Amendment had said that the USA could only give aid to a country after American President had declared that country had no nuclear weapons and was not developing them. After the Afghan Crisis was over, President Bush refused to declare that this was the case with Pakistan and he blocked aid to country. He also stopped the sale of 28 F16 fighter jets which Pakistan had ordered and paid for. Pakistan complained bitterly that the Pressler Amendment seems to apply only to Pakistan, not India and was not fair. President Clinton, wanting to restore relations b/w two countries, agreed that the Pressler Amendment had led to unfair treatment and suggested that if Pakistan stopped producing Weapon grade Uranium he would agree to sell the F-16s. In 1995, Defence Secretary, William Perry, visited Pakistan and declared that Pressler Amendment had been a mistake. In 1996, the Brown Amendment authorized the US Government to reimburse Pakistan for F16 payments and provide $388 million in military equipment. The thaw in the relations was further highlighted when First Lady Hillary Clinton and her daughter Chelsea, visited Pakistan in 1996. Thus, relations between the two varied in the period, but were generally good. It may be concluded that Pak-USA relations were not successful because USA would probably have preferred to have allied with India and only had good relations with Pakistan when events meant it was necessary. Q. How successful have Pakistan-USSR relations been? (14) Relations between Pakistan and USSR have undergone many ups and downs between 1947 and 1999. Russia has always tried to have sincere relations with Pakistan but Pakistani leaders never thought in this context. From 1947-1950, Russia had remained neutral in her relations with Pakistan. In 1950, USSR invited Liaqut Ali Khan to visit Moscow. However, at the same time USA invited him to visit Washington. Liaqut Ali Khan chose to go to Washington. This, clearly, snubbed the Soviet Union and in turn relations between the two suffered for some time. By 1950, the Soviet Union started to back over with India over the Kashmir issue. When Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union took this as a firm declaration in favour of the USA. This greatly worsened the relations between USSR and Pakistan. In 1955, the USSR officially backed India over the Pakistan-Studies2059/01  36 Kashmir problem and promised whole-hearted support; moreover, USSR also began to Press Pakistan over the Afghan claims in ‘Pakhtoonistan’. However, Soviet Union always desired to have good relations with Pakistan. In 1956, it offered Pakistan aid together with a promise to build a steel mill, if only Pakistan broke off its alliance with USA. Pakistan refused to do so. The relations reached the rock bottom when in May 1960; an American Spy Plane (U2) flew from an American base near Peshawar and was shot down while flying over Russia. Russia gave a serious warning to Pakistan. On the contrary, the relations after 1960s greatly elevated. In 1961, the USSR, as a gesture of goodwill, agreed to begin exploring for oil in Pakistan. When India accepted help from USA in its war with China, the effect was to drive Pakistan and the USSR closer together. When China began to give Pakistan aid in 1963, the USSR decided to take even more decisive steps to ally with Pakistan. In 1963, it loaned Pakistan £11 million and shifted from its previous inclination towards India over Kashmir to neutral stance. The relations sky-rocketed when Ayub Khan paid an official visit to Soviet Union and further agreements on trade and oil exploration were reached. After the Pakistan-India was of 1965, the Tashkent Agreement took place through the efforts of Russian president. Relations however were decreased during 1969-71 because Pakistan’s effort to bring USA and China closer greatly annoyed USSR. In 1971, Russia fully supported India with military aid and Pakistan lost its East Wing. The Period of 1972-77 was a period of good relations because Z.A. Bhutto visited Russia in 1972. Bhutto had no liking for USA. Russia had become neutral on Kashmir issue and Russia helped Pakistan in setting up a steel mill at Karachi which has been a great asset to Pakistan – thanks to the good relations between the two. However, the improved relations were short-lived. The soviet occupation of Afghanistan in 1979 caused an open rift when Pakistan accepted American aid to support the mujahidin rebels. Although Zia visited Moscow in 1984 for the funeral of Andropov, he got a cold reception. Later that year, the Soviet Union, which also disapproved of Pakistan’s nuclear programme, began bombing raids on Pakistan. Hostile relations continued until 1988, when the USSR finally withdrew from Afghanistan. Several high levels of exchanges of trips have taken place between the two sides since 1991. In April 1993, the Russian Foreign Minister, and in 1994 the first Russian deputy foreign minister visited Pakistan. A broad range of bilateral issues were discussed during these visits. Russia had moved away from its unconditional support to India on all issues. Pakistan and Russia cooperated in UN sponsored talks at Tajikistan. Pakistan-Studies2059/01  37 The Russian President extended the invitation to Pakistan’s Prime Minister to visit Moscow. In April 1998, PM Nawaz Sharif visited Moscow. During this visit many important bilateral issues were signed. It may be concluded that Pakistan was not successful in keeping good relations with the USSR because periods of improved relations were short lived. Q. How successful have Pakistan-Bangladesh relations been? (14) Q. How successful have Pakistan-Afghan relations been? (14) Q. How successful have Pakistan-Britain relations been? (14) Q. How successful have Pakistan-Iran relations been? (14) Q. How successful have Pakistan-China relations been? (14) Q. How successful have Pakistan-Turkey relations been? (14) Q. How successful has Pakistan’s relationship with the Muslim World been? (14) Q. How successful has Pakistan’s relationship with the World Organizations been? (14) Pakistan has been taking keen and active interest in international organizations. Pakistan joined UNO in September 1947. In the beginning Pakistan remained involved in arguments about rights of Kashmiris and the solution for the Kashmir problem in which Pakistan was not successful. But later, Pakistan has been very active in the proceedings of the United Nations and the Pakistani delegations made effective contribution for the independence of many states, which were under colonial rule in 1950s particularly in the case of Muslim states such as Palestine. Pakistan has contributed effectively and regularly to the United Nations peace-keeping missions in African and Asian countries. Pakistan was elected thrice as member of the Security Council. Pakistan was effective in getting resolutions passed in General Assembly asking for withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and always supported the Palestinian and Arab cause. Chaudhary Zafarullah Khan of Pakistan worked as a judge of international Court of Justice for a number of years. Thus, on the whole Pakistan has been a successful member of UNO. Pakistan was far more enthusiastic about CENTO because other member states were mostly Muslim. Pakistan regularly tried to persuade the other members to establish a unified command for CENTO. However, despite regular meetings, the group never developed a permanent structure or a system for raising troops for mutual defence. The USA supported CENTO, but never actually joined. Thus by 1979 the organisation had quietly dissolved. In September 1954, Pakistan joined SEATO, but the decision faced opposition from within the Pakistan government and so the treaty was not ratified until 1955. The treaty also applied to only against the Pakistan-Studies2059/01  38 communist aggression, thus Pakistan was to receive no help for its wars with India. Pakistan had also hoped for a permanent military force to protect all member countries against any attack – it was, however, not accepted. It did not support Pakistan during 1965 and 1971 wars. Finally Bhutto withdrew from the organisation in 1972 after the Bangladesh Crisis. Therefore, the membership of SEATO and CENTO has not been successful on part of Pakistan. Since the foundation of OIC, Pakistan had been an active member of it and had been actively participating in the activities of OIC aimed at Islamic unity, solidarity and stability. Pakistan has also taken part in all summits and conferences held under the banner of OIC. Pakistan also contributed her due share in all respects for the achievement of its objectives. It had raised voice for the Palestinian Cause. Sharif- Udin-Pirzada, the former minister of Pakistan, have been the Secretary-General of OIC. The summit showed that Pakistan had many friends all over the Muslim world. One result was that Pak was receiving aid from fellow Islamic countries, like Iran (giving loans totalling $730 million). Thus Pakistan also remained a prominent member of OIC. On 21st July 1964, largely as a result of the work of Ayub Khan, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan set up the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD). This encouraged the three countries to develop closer trade links and help each other with industrial projects, such as setting up mills, and factories. In case of Canal Water Dispute, the UN played a significant role when the President of the World Bank made a recommendation that it should provide financial and technical support to resolve the disagreement. This proposal formed the basis of the Indus Water Treaty signed in September 1959. The World Bank also provided finance to help establish hydro-electricity and soil reclamation programmes which have been vital for the stimulation of Pakistan’s economy and industries. Pakistan has been an active member of NAM organisation and took active part in its deliberations. Pakistan has been an effective member of Common wealth except during 1972-1989. It may be concluded that Pakistan has been quite successful as a member of world organizations and has always stood for justice, equality, peace, security and rights of the people. Pakistan-Studies2059/01