HIS 122 Elements of Diplomacy & Strategic Studies PDF

UNILORIN ANTHEM DEPT. OF HISTORY & INT’L STUDIES HIS 122: ELEMENTS OF DIPLOMACY & STRATEGIC STUDIES By ABOYEJI, Adeniyi Justus, Ph.D. Department of History & International Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria...

UNILORIN ANTHEM DEPT. OF HISTORY & INT’L STUDIES HIS 122: ELEMENTS OF DIPLOMACY & STRATEGIC STUDIES By ABOYEJI, Adeniyi Justus, Ph.D. Department of History & International Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria University of Ilorin, Ilorin © 28th January, 2021 In Our Last Class, we considered THE EVOLUTION/ ORIGIN & GROWTH OF DIPLOMACY  We traced the evolution through a. The pre-historic period b. Proto-historic period c. Greek Diplomacy d. Roman Diplomacy e. Renaissance Italy f. New/Modern Diplomacy  IN OUR LAST CLASS… We noted that the history of the origins of diplomacy tends to be sketchy and rather subjective since they were often the products of Eurocentric authors who never see anything good about Africa and of people who served governments at the helms of imperial power. Africa is taken to be the Cradle of Mankind, yet the above historical origin/evolution of Diplomacy does not reflect any contributions from Africa.  Today, we will be considering EVIDENCES OF DIPLOMATIC ACTIVITIES IN PRE-COLONIAL WEST AFRICA  PREAMBLE The remoter periods of the formation of these West African states and empires have not always been studied in depth. This can be attributed to the difficulty of recovering the essential details of diplomatic manoeuvres and procedures from the oral traditions. In the later periods of expansion, the issues of external relations of these imperial systems become clearer.  The dealings between the Benin Kingdom and its eastern neighbours, with the Igala, Nupe and Yoruba, or the relations between the Oyo Empire and Dahomey; or of Dahomey with Asante, are easier to identify as issues of diplomatic relationships. And as we come closer to the present, in the nineteenth century, the detail also become more accessible and recoverable. It is particularly noteworthy that in West Africa, diplomacy was being carried on in a very decent and dignifying manner. While foreign ambassadors in Europe and other places were subjected to purification rites such as passing through fire and sterilizing gifts items brought, foreigners to Yorubaland were not only welcomed and treated decently, they were even allotted land on which to farm.  In Dahomey, for instance, the king and all his subjects reportedly received foreigners with the most remarkable courtesy (Dalzel,1973). It is however, not unlikely that certain sophisticated diplomatic structures would have been lost because most of the state structures took the form of largely, loosely formed empires, with porous boundaries/borders, slow communication and little need to deal on any continuous basis with any other entity which had to be treated as an equal. Such conditions did not give rise to the development of complicated diplomacy nor to the devices required to pursue it (Adegbulu, 2011:171).  FACTORS THAT NECESSITATED DIPLOMATIC ACTIVITIES IN WEST AFRICA PRIOR TO THE MODERN ERA  1. STATES FORMATION PROCESS Most state systems in West Africa, as in other parts of Africa, meant the bringing together of disparate groups. It can be argued that the studies of the evolution of the states and politics entail the study of the art of persuasion or coordination of interest groups and disparate units.  The very traditions of origin employ myths and legends to reconcile conflicting intergroup relationships and provide acceptable explanations of the resulting situations. Rival States on settling down to a situation of coexistence became, in oral tradition, states founded by sons of the same parents. Ritual relationships are used to explain away conquest. Perhaps, it is imperative to consider the workings of Yoruba state- system, or the composition of the more diversified Benin imperial structure to realise the diplomatic effort required to keep them together. The rise of a state like Asante for example, is an epic requiring the welding together of separate Akan communities and states into a single political unit (Ajayi,1976:78).  The evolution of its constitution, Ajayi argues, called for high diplomatic skills such as is credited to the genius of the statesman warrior King Osei Tutu, and the magical powers of his divine counselor, Okomfo Anokye. It called for the use of inherited ideas in the creation of new institutions of inter-state coordination such as the confederal army, the elaboration of the idea of the Golden stool and of ritual usages and traditions of common origin (Ajayi,1976.) There are other numerous examples of state formations, but not all have yet been put together in such detail as the Asante case.  2. GIFTS EXCHANGE Gift exchanges including Diplomatic marriages. E.g. King Solomon's 700 wives and 300 concubines, Some Emirs of Ilorin, etc.  3. RELIGION The factor of Islam, for instance brought other dimensions of contacts and relations of a trans-continental nature via the trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves in the Sudan belt of West Africa where Ghana, Shonghai and Mali maintained considerable relations with North Africa. Ditto for Bornu and the Hausa states with the Maghreb. Mansa Kankan Musa (1307-1332)'s famous pilgrimage to Mecca was itself a major diplomatic expedition besides sending diplomatic missions to the Middle East.  4. LANGUAGE/LINGUISTIC FACTOR The introduction of foreign languages such as Arabic language and writings into the Sudan enabled empires like Shonghai to exchange diplomatic letters with Morocco and Kanem Bornu with Tunis, Tripoli and even the Turkish Emperor at Istanbul; even to the forest belt as some states employed Muslim scribes to establish what may be called chancery. 5. WAR/MILITARY ALLIANCE/NEGOTIATIONS The anti-Ibadan coalition of 1878 in what became known as Ekiti-parapo. There were even examples of negotiations through a third party in West Africa and the evolution and implementation of Foreign Policies and indigenous diplomacy. Alaafin Adeyemi resorted to diplomacy in the 1860s when the rise of Ibadan posed a threat to Oyo and National Interest.  6. TRADE AND COMMERCE Commercial relations in one way fostered ad hoc diplomacy and expanded foreign relations into a deliberate and long term foreign policy. In another way, tentative steps were taken in pre- colonial West Africa towards permanent or continuous diplomacy. In 1821, Asanti also proposed to send to England slave embassies.  7. MAINTENANCE OF RESIDENT/AMBASSADORIAL REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD: For the purpose of tribute collection in the 16th century, Songhai's Askia (king) reportedly had courtiers resident in Kano for the receipt of the tribute due to him from the kingdom. Ditto for Ashanti in the 18th C, In Oyo Alaafin in the late 18th C—Ilaris In Benin Kingdom — Balekale In Akure and Igbara-Oke—Abilekale In Ibadan, Oyo successor state — Ajele In Ilorin, they were known as Ajia.  ELIGIBILITY OF DIPLOMATS Qualifications of those appointed as diplomats varied across West African states: 1. Close Associates to the rulers, often members of the royal house. 2. Slaves: In Oyo, the Ilaris were of servile origin/status, mainly slaves from neighbouring states. Ashanti in 1821 also. 3. Great Men/VIPs and sometimes princes from the royal family were dispatches on missions abroad in some states. As far back as the 16th C, Congolese embassy was sent to Rome and in the 17th C, Ashante Ambassador was sent to the coast. 4. Wives: The Kings of Ashanti and Denkyira in the late 17th C sent their wives as envoys/ambassadors to each other. This mutual courtesy however later resulted into a diplomatic brawl as Osei Tutu, the great, the Ashantehene accused his friend of misbehaving with one of his wives—envoy. 5. Priests: Among the Ibos, priests were appointed as envoys in negotiations to quench small scale inter-communal feuds. 6. Some of the diplomats were of humble but free births who had achieved distinction by their talents. Ashanti in the early 19th century had Agyei, a salt- carrier to the Volta rose being the second linguist of the Ashantehene. He was the Foreign minister of Ashanti. 7. Linguists were also appointed. The office of the interpreter is very considerable.  FOREIGN OFFICE  Although there appears to be no trace of even the most vestigial foreign office to serve as a centre for the information and execution of Foreign Policies except where the Eastern and Western external influences of Islam and Europe came strong. Albeit, instances of recognised diplomatic staff are replete in pre-colonial West Africa.  The Alaafin of Oyo perhaps had the most highly complex/organised staff comprising of a group of household slaves called Ilari, a.k.a. half-heads, coined from the custom of shaving one side of their heads as identity into which a magical substance was inserted. Ilaris numbered in hundreds, often paired male and female in the discharge of their multifarious errands for the Alaafin. They also went in pairs so as to ensure the accuracy and security of messages which were memorised.  SENIORITY/CADRE Seniority was evident in their rank. The Senior Males served as personal orderly/body guards to the Alaafin and his foreign envoys to the outside world, while The Junior Cadre served administrative and menial duties within the palace.  Choice of candidature of slaves for this sensitive office may not be unconnected with diplomatic strategy of beefing up their self-esteem and sense of belonging. Ilaris were initiated into some palace cults and enjoyed the privilege of socialising freely to the extent that some forgot their original identity. These constitute part of the privileges they enjoyed to guarantee their implicit obedience and unfettered allegiance. In this way, having been fully acculturated, it becomes easier for them to penetrate the rank of their home countries with a view to gathering information regarding the strength and weakness of the foes of the Lord who had so graciously elevated them.  This behoves the maxim "one who must catch a monkey must behave like one." This was the modern day espionage. Moremi's example among the Igbo is a case in point. But this could, though seldom in those days, boomerang, as war captives or slaves still nursing the ambition to retaliate their humiliation might escape and declare himself independent of his master or plot in collaboration with his host government against the state of his lord.  In Oyo, Ilari's ambassadorial appointments were ratified only after due consultation with the Ifa oracle, followed by the necessary rituals to instil in them the courage and loyalty requires of them in the service of the Alaafin. The appearance of the Alaafin's envoy would readily indicate the king's position on a matter. Dahomey's institution of royal emissaries, half heads, known as Wensangun had similar organisation as Oyo.  SYMBOLS AND CREDENTIALS Pre-colonial West African diplomats often carried Badges of office or credentials in form of: The 'half-head' hairstyle, a fan, baton, cane, whistle or sword, specially made diplomatic uniform such as black caps. DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY  Such objects by extending the king's power and authority to the envoys were to ensure the safe passage and immunity of his diplomats through alien territories. This diplomatic immunity enjoyed by diplomats in the course of discharging their duties was an important aspect of West African pre-colonial diplomacy. Embassy between two hostile states or governments is permissible in native laws, especially when the diplomats carries credentials identifying them as state officials representing their sovereigns.  The ambassador's safety is therefore guaranteed, provided he did not act in a hostile way or as spy. When this is flouted however, beside the general hospitality to strangers in the pre-colonial Yorubaland, they had their way of accommodating criminals, spies on espionage and others who incurred the wrath of the authorities. When refuge is sought in recognised sanctuaries such as the king's palace, they may be declared persona- non-grata. DECLINE OF DIPLOMACY  Today, the growth and development as well as rise and particularly decline of diplomacy from the Greek, Roman, Renaissance Italy, Vienna Congress of March 1815, to contemporary times, has been shaped and affected by a number of factors, such as: 1. The growing interdependence of states: No nation or individual as it were can survive today living the Robinson Crusoe lifestyle. 2. Proliferation of international organisations— bloc, regional, sub-regional, global, etc. 3. Scientific and Technological Advancement in the world. By this, it refers to the availability of improved means of communication like the internet, fax, telephones, etc. which has reduced fashion practice of diplomacy. The agelong situation where messages had to be carried and accessed manually is reduced to indirect contacts using the modern technology.  The beauty of one on one discussion is removed from diplomacy. Hence, developments in transportation and communication, which have shrunk the world into a global milieu have affected the powers and functions of ambassadors. 4. Creation of the League of Nations and United Nations: The Two World Wars (i.e. World Wars I & II) were a demonstration of the state of anarchy and breakdown of order at the global level. The World War I was fought and it ended up in the creation of the League of Nations. The World War II was fought and it ended in the formation of the UNO. Both the League of Nations and UNO are elements of diplomacy which could have been used or exploited without going into war. 5. The coming of the Super Powers has made diplomacy to be on the decline. They believe in the use of power to achieve their interest within the international system. 6. Depreciation in Moral Values i.e. the depreciation in diplomacy. Diplomats are not trusted again. Today, diplomats tell lies. A diplomat is not expected to lie.  The case of Tom Ikimi at Auckland, New Zealand during the Commonwealth meeting (CHOGM 1995) while Ken Saro Wiwa was being murdered, and arguably without proper trail and with Ikimi giving conflicting report. Unfortunately, it happened at an age of technological achievement when the fact could be verified through other sources. Tom Ikimi turned out to be lying. The value of diplomacy is still declining due to falsehood.  From the moral dimension, the means of verifying happening does not give room for falsehood. Moreover lies are no longer acceptable. All this contribute to the decline of diplomacy. Paradoxically, however, the roles and functions of ambassadors have become not only wider but more complex.  NEXT CLASS… In our next class, we would be looking at the: 1. Classifications of Diplomats and Consuls 2. Duties and Functions of Diplomatic and Consular Personnel 3. Means of Diplomacy 4. Machinery of Diplomacy (Home & Abroad)  ASSIGNMENT Study the Chart below and Organization of a U.S. Diplomatic Mission  NOTES Nearly two-thirds of all United States ambassadors to foreign embassies are professional diplomats who have completed the country’s rigorous foreign service program. Political appointees operate the remainder of the country’s diplomatic missions abroad. Missions often include a large staff of counselors and administrators, as shown in this chart. Various advisors, including attachés from other federal departments such as the Department of Defense or the Department of Agriculture, counsel the chief of the mission or the ambassador on specific U.S. policies, but ultimately the ambassador must ensure that U.S. policies are implemented and U.S. interests protected. © Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.  GROUP WORKS Compare and Contrast the operations of the Unites States and Nigeria’s diplomatic missions abroad. Account for the decline of diplomacy since the 19th century. THE END  Dr. Aboyeji, A. Justus Department of History & International Studies, University of Ilorin (28th January, 2021)