Hedonism PDF

# CHAPTER IX ## HEDONISM 1. **Hedonism.** - According to Hedonism, *hedone* or pleasure **is the ultimate standard of morality**. - It is the highest good. - It is the supreme end of life. - It is based on two assumptions: a metaphysical assumption and a psychological assumption. - Hedonism is ba...

# CHAPTER IX ## HEDONISM 1. **Hedonism.** - According to Hedonism, *hedone* or pleasure **is the ultimate standard of morality**. - It is the highest good. - It is the supreme end of life. - It is based on two assumptions: a metaphysical assumption and a psychological assumption. - Hedonism is based upon the metaphysical assumption that the self is purely sensuous in nature. - It is a series of sensations, feelings, appetites, and instincts. - We have reason, no doubt; but it is not supreme in human nature; it is a mere hand-maid of passion. - According to most Hedonists, reason simply points out the best means for the realisation of the ends of passions. - Hume regards reason as a hand-maid of passion. - Gratification of the lower self is the supreme good according to Hedonism. - **Many Hedonists** (e.g., Bentham, J. S. Mill and others) assume that we naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain. - Desire is primarily directed towards pleasure. - We desire pleasure as the ultimate end. - We desire everything else as a means to pleasure. - Pleasure is the normal object of desire. 2. **Psychological Hedonism and Ethical Hedonism.** - Hedonism assumes many forms. - It may be either psychological or ethical. - **Psychological Hedonism** holds that pleasure is the natural and normal object of desire; we always seek pleasure and avoid pain. - **Ethical Hedonism** holds that pleasure is the proper object of desire: we do not always seek pleasure but ought to seek pleasure. - According to the former, we do seek pleasure. - According to the latter, we ought to seek pleasure. - One is a statement of an actual fact. - The other is a statement of an ideal or end. 3. **Psychological Hedonism** - It is the theory that the ultimate object of desire is pleasure. - Pleasure is the natural end and motive of human action. - We always seek pleasure and avoid pain. - Everyone desires what he thinks will be pleasurable, and for the sake of pleasure which he expects that it will give him. - Things are desired not for their own sake, but only for the sake of pleasure they will give us. - Pleasure is the natural object of desire. - Cyrenaics were the advocates of this view. - Bentham and J. S. Mill are also the advocates of this theory. Bentham says, "Nature has placed man under the empire of pleasure and pain. His only object is to seek pleasure and to shun pain. 4. **Egoistic Hedonism.** - According to Egoistic Hedonism, the pleasure of the individual is the moral standard. - According to Altruistic Hedonism, the greatest happiness of the greatest number or general happiness is the moral standard. 5. **Difference between Ancient Hedonism and Modern Hedonism.** - Seth mentions the following three points of difference between ancient Hedonism and modern Hedonism. - Firstly, "ancient Hedonism, whether of the Cyrenaic or of the Epicurean type, was apt to be pessimistic; modern Hedonism is, on the whole, optimistic" (Seth). - The Epicureans conceived the end of life rather as an escape from pain than as positive pleasure; - the modern Hedonists accept the original Cyrenaic conception of end as real enjoyment, as not merely the absence of pain, but the presence of pleasure. - Secondly, "while ancient Hedonism was egoistic, the modern is altruistic or universalistic. The greatest happiness of the greatest number has taken the place of the greatest happiness of the individual" (Seth). - Hume, Bentham, and J. S. Mill substitute the general happiness or the greatest happiness of the greatest number for that of the individual, as the end of life. - "The utilitarian standard is not the agent's own greatest happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness altogether." - "As between his own happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator" (Mill). - Thirdly, the modern Hedonism of J. S. Mill recognizes the qualitative difference or the gradation of pleasures. - Mill introduces a distinction of quality, in addition to the old distinction of quantity. - The Epicureans preferred the pleasures of the mind to those of the body on the ground of their greater durability and their comparative freedom from painful consequences, but they had not maintained the intrinsic preferableness of the mental pleasures. - To Paley and Bentham, as well as to the Epicureans, all pleasures are still essentially, or in kind, the same. - Mill holds that the distinotion of quality is independent of that of quantity, and that the qualitative distinction is as real and legitimate as the quantitative. 6. **Altruistic Hedonism.** (A) **Gross Utilitarianism (Bentham).** - (According to Altruistic Hedonism, universal or general happiness. i. e., "the greatest happiness of the greatest number" is the ultimate moral standard.) - Bentham and Mill both advocate this view. - (But they differ in that Bentham recognizes only quantitative distinction of pleasures, whereas J. S. Mill admits their qualitative distinction as well. This theory is called Utilitarianism, because it judges all actions according to their utility as means for the promotion of general happiness or prevention of general pain. Bentham holds that the only standard of valuation of pleasures is quantitative. But quantity takes different forms. It has seven dimensions of value, viz., (1) intensity, (2) duration, (3) proximity, (4) certainty, (5) purity (freedom from pain), (6) fecundity (fruitfulness), and over ani above these (7) extent, i. e., the number of persons affected. One pleasure is more intense than another. Of pleasures otherwise equal, the more intense pleasure is preferable to a less intense pleasure. One pleasure is more durable than another. Of pleasures otherwise equal, the more durable pleasure is preferable to a less durable pleasure. An immediate pleasure is preferable to a remote pleasure. A certain pleasure is preferable to an uncertain pleasure. A pleasure is pure when it is free fram pain. It is impure when it is mixed with pain. A pure pleasure is preferable to an impure pleasure. A pleasure is said to have fecundity when it gives rise to a number of other pleasures. It is preferable to a barren pleasure which does not give rise to other pleasures. A pleasure may be enjoyed by a small number of persons or a large number of persons. A pleasure of greater extent is preferable to one of less extent. These are intensity, duration, proximity, certainty, purity, fecundity, and extent of pleasures.) - Bentham is an advocate of Psychological Hedonism. - He says, "Nature has placed man under the empire of pleasure and pain. We owe to them all our ideas; we refer to them all our judgments and all our determinations of life. His object is to seek pleasure and shun pain." - "The principle of utility. subjects everything to these two motives." - "Nature has placed mankind- under the governance of these two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point what we ought to do as well as what we shall do." - Bentham believes in hedonistic calculus. - He says, "Weigh pleasures and weigh pains, and as the balance stands, will stand the question of right and wrong." An action is right if it gives pleasure or excess of pleasure over pain. An action is wrong if it gives pain or excess of pain over pleasure. - Thus Bentham gives a purely hedonistic criterion of right and wrong. Rightness consists in pleasurableness; wrongness consists in painfulness. - Bentham's Utilitarianism may be called gross or sensualistic, because he does not admit qualitative differences among pleasures. He says, on the contrary, that any one pleasure is as good as another provided they are equal in quantity. "Quantity of pleasure being equal, pushpin is as good as poetry" (Bentham). - We must bear in mind that Bentham does not mean by purity any superior quality but merely freedom from pain. - A pleasure lis pure, according to Bentham, when it is unmixed with pain. - Bentham's Hedonism is altruistic in tendency, because he takes into account the extent of pleasures, i. e., the number of persons affected by them. - If a pleasure is shared by many persons, it has a greater extent and as such it is to be preferred to a pleasure that can be enjoyed by only one person. - Thus Bentham by introducing extent as a dimension of pleasure introduces altruism into his doctrine. - The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the moral standard. - Though Bentham is an advocate of altruistic Hedonism, he clearly recognizes the natural egoism of man. He says, "To obtain the greatest portion of happiness for himself is the object of every rational being. Every man is nearer to himself than he can be to any other man; and no other man can weigh for him his pleasures and pains. Himself must necessarily be his own concern. His interest must, to himself, be the primary interest." - That man is naturally egoistic is repeatedly asserted by Bentham and most emphatically in the following passage. "Dream not that men will move their little finger to serve you, unless their own advantage in so doing be obvious to them. Men never did so and never will, while human mature is made of the present materials. But they will desire to serve you, when by so doing they can serve themselves." - Thus Bentham olearly admits that man is egoistic by nature, but still he is an advocate of altruistic hedonism as shown above. - He says, "Each is to count for one, and no one for more than one." This is the democratic principle of justice. - The moral standard is not the greatest pleasure of the individual, but the greatest pleasure of the greatest number' calculated upon the basis of the quality of the claims of all. - How, then, does Bentham pass from Egoism to Altruism ? If man is egoistic hy nature, why should he seek the happiness of others? Why is he bound to promote the general happiness? Why should he sacrifice his own happiness for the happiness of others? What is the binding force of morality ? How does Bentham account for the transition from egoism to altruism? He explains it by means of four external sanctions, physical or natural sanction, political sanction, social sanction, and religious or divine sanction. The physical sanction is constituted by the physical pains, which result from the disregard of natural laws such as the laws of health. It is a law of nature that we should satisfy the appetites moderately; if we violate it by their over-indulgence the violation is followed by diseases and pains. The political sanction consists of those pains which follow upon the penalties inflicted by the authority of the State. The idea of these pains prevents the individual from violating political laws, and the hope of reward from the State prompts him to perform actions that are beneficial to the society. The social sanction consists of those pains, which follow upon the penalties inflicted by the society upon the individual (6. g., excommunication). The idea of the pains dissuades the individual from acting selfishly. The religious sanction includes the fear of punishment in hell and the hope of reward in heaven. Thus the external sanctions are merely external pressures brought to bear upon the individual so as to compel him to sacrifice his own interests to the interests of society. Thus, according to Bentham, the individual passes from egoism to altruism under the pressure of the external sanctions. - Bentham's Gross Utilitarianism is open to the following objections:- - Bentham is an advocate of Psychological Hedonism. So his doctrine suffers from all the defects of Psychological Hedonism. Our desire is primarily directed towards some object, the attainment of which is followed by pleasure. If we desire a pleasant object, it does not follow that we desire pleasure. Moreover, very often the more we seek pleasure, the less we get it. This is the fundamental Paradox of Hedonism. Moreover, even if we do seek pleasure, it does not follow that we ought to seek pleasure. In fact, if we naturally seek pleasure, there is no point in saying that we ought to seek pleasure. Thus Psychological Hedonism does not necessarily lead to Ethical Hedonism. There is no necessary connection between the two. In fact, the ideal cannot be evolved from the actual. - When Bentham recognizes several dimensions of value among pleasures and holds that the surplus of pleasure over pain determines the rightness of an action, and the surplus of pain over pleasure determines the wrongness of an action, he looks upon pleasure and pain as an emotional currency which can be added and subtracted and thus quantitatively measured. But feelings of pleasure and pain are purely subjective states of the mind, which cannot be measured like coins. They are highly variable in character. They depend upon variation in mood, temperament and circumstances. Thus hedonistic calculus proposed by Bentham is impracticable. - Bentham clearly recognizes the egoistic nature of man; but still he advocates Altruistic Hedonism. He does not offer any argument for altruism. He does not give any reason for our pursuit of general happiness. He thinks the nature of man to be essentially egoistic. "To obtain the greatest portion of happiness for himself," says Bentham, "is the object of every rational being. Every man is nearer to himself than he can be to any other man." From this pure egoism, Bentham can never evolve altruism; but still he recognizes the extent of pleasure, and thus introduces altruism into his doctrine. - Bentham introduces altruism into his doctrine by taking into account the extent of pleasures, i. e., the number of persons affected by them. But he gives no reason why the pleasures of greater extent are preferable to those of smaller extent. In fact, intellectual pleasure and esthetic pleasure can be shared by a large number of persons. But sensual pleasures of eating and drinking cannot be shared by a large number of persons. The former are higher pleasures, since they satisfy reason. The latter are lower pleasures, since they satisfy sensibility. But Bentham does not recognize qualitative difference among pleasures. The extent of pleasure covertly refers to its quality. - The external sanctions can never explain the transition from egoism to altruism. We choose to obey the laws of Nature, Society, State and God not for their sake, but for our own good. We are compelled by these external sanctions to sacrifice our own pleasures and interests to those of others by prudential considerations. These external sanctions can create a must or physical compulsion, but never an ought or moral obligation. - Bentham's altruism is gross or sensualistic, because he does not recognize the qualitative differences of pleasures. Though he recognizes purity as a dimension of value in pleasures, he does not mean by 'purity' qualitative superiority or intrinsic excellence. All pleasures are equally alike in kind or quality. (B) **Refined Altruistic Hedonism or Utilitarianism (J. S. Mill).** - Hedonism.-J. S. Mill is a Hedonist. He says, "actions are right in proportion as they tend to produce happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and absence of pain." - "Happiness is the ole end of human action." - "Pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends." - Thus Mill holds that pleasure is the only good as an end and for its own sake. - He says, "Happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end." - "Happiness is pleasure and the absence of pain." - Mill uses 'pleasure' and 'happiness' as synonymous. - He does not distinguish them from each other. - He regards virtue, health, love of honour and the like as means to happiness. - He does not regard them as intrinsic values. - Mill gives a hedonistio criterion of right and wrong. - An action is right if it yields pleasure or excess of pleasure over pain. - An action is wrong if it gives pain or excess of pain over pleasure. - This is hedonism pure and simple. - Rightness consists in conduciveness to pleasure. - Wrongness consists in conduciveness to pain. - Bentham also gives a purely hedonistic criterion of right and wrong. - **Psychological Hedonism.** - Mill bases his Hedonism, as we have already seen, on Psychological Hedonism. - He offers the following proof of Psychological Hedonism. "Desiring a thing and finding it pleasant are, in strictness of language, two modes of naming the same psychological fact: to think of an object as desirable, and to think of it as pleasant are one and the same thing; and to desire anything, except in proportion as the idea of it is pleasant, is a physical and metaphysical impossibility." - In plain language, it means that we always desire what is pleasant, therefore we desire pleasure. - **Ethical Hedonism.** - Mill is an advocate of Ethical Hedonism. - His Ethical Hedonism is based upon Psychological Hedonisın. - He offers the following proof for Ethical Hedonism. - We always desire pleasure; therefore pleasuro is desirable. - He says, "The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible is that people hear it; the sole evidence that anything is desirable is that people do actually desire it." - All persons desire pleasure: so pleasure is desirable. - **Kinds of Pleasure: Quality** - Mill recognizes the qualitative difference of pleasures. - Mill for the first time, introduces the distinction of quality, in addition to the distinction of quantity. - Epicurus emphasized the distinction between the pleasures of our body and those of the mind and gave superiority to the latter on account of their greater durability and their comparative freedom from painful consequences. - But he did not recognize the qualitative superiority of the mental pleasures. - To Bentham also all pleasures are essentially or in kind the same. - Though Bentham recognizes purity of pleasure, he does not mean by it qualitative superiority, but freedom from pain. - Mill, for the first time, holds that the distinction of quality is independent of quantity, and the qualitative distinction is as real as the quantitative. - **Mill says, "It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognize the fact that some kinds of pleasures are more desirable and valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in, estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone." Hence Mill's argument is called Refined Utilitarianism as contrasted with Bentham’s Gross Utilitarianism.** - **Test of quality.---What, then, according to Mill, is the test of quality? He appeals to the verdict of competent judges. "Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all who have experience of both, give a decided preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the desirable pleasure...... Now it is an unquestionable fact that those who are equally acquainted with, and equally capable of appreciating and enjoying both, do give a most marked preferonce to the manner of existence which employs their higher faculties. Fow human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast's pleasures." Competent judgements always prefer intellectual pleasures to bodily and sensual pleasures. From this verdict of competent judges there can be no appeal. If there is a conflict of opinion among the competent judges, we should abide by the verdict of the majority of them. Mill says, "From this verdict of the only competent judges, I apprehend there can he no appeal...... If they differ, that of the majority among them, must be admitted to be final."** - **The Sense of Dignity. - When Mill is pressed hard to give us the ultimate reason of the preference felt by the competent judges, he refers us to the "sense of dignity" which is natural to man. It is on account of the existence of this sense of dignity in man that he would not consent to be changed into any of the lower animals capable of sensual pleasures only. ("It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool or the pig is of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question. The other party to the comparison knows both sides" (Mill).** - **Mill's proof of Altruism.-Mill's Hedonism is altruistic. Bentham also advocated Altruistic Hedonism, but did not offer any argument for his altruism. Mill advocates refined utilitarianism and offers a few arguments. "The utilitarian standard is not the agent's greatest happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness altogether." "As between his own happiness, and that of others, Utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested, benevolent spectator. In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazaroth we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility. To do as one would be done by, and to love one's neighbour as oneself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality" (Mill).** - **Mill offers the following logical argument for altruism. "No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, dosires his own happiness. Each person's happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons" (Mill).** - **Origin of Sympathy.--Mill offers a psychological explanation of the transition from egoism to altruism. Altruism grows out of egoism-sympathy or fellow-feeling, out of self-love in the life time of an individual, according to the law of association and transference of interest from the end to the means. At first we were egoists and relieved the miseries of others in order to relieve our own pain. Then by repetition, our own interest was transferred from the end to the means; we forgot our own pleasure, and came to take delight in relieving the miserist of others, and thus acquired sympathy. Thus sympathy is. acquired by the individual in his own life time.** - **Moral Sanctions (External and Internal). --What, according to Mill, is the binding force of morality? Why am I bound to promote the general happiness? If my own happiness lies in something else, why should I sacrifice my own happiness in preference? Mill explains that:**