Health Psychology Resume PDF

🧠 Health Psychology Resume Introduction to Health Psychology Definition and Emergence: Health Psychology is a subfield of psychology that studies how psychological, social, cultural, and biological factors interact to influence health and illn...

🧠 Health Psychology Resume Introduction to Health Psychology Definition and Emergence: Health Psychology is a subfield of psychology that studies how psychological, social, cultural, and biological factors interact to influence health and illness. It emerged in the 1970s as researchers began recognizing that health is not just about biological factors but also about behaviors, thoughts, emotions, and social conditions. Key Focus Areas: Promoting health and well-being by encouraging healthier behaviors. Preventing illness through understanding and modifying risk behaviors. Managing illness and disability by helping people cope with health conditions and adhere to treatments. Biopsychosociocultural Model: This model integrates four major components that influence health: 1. Biological Factors: Genes: Genetic predisposition to certain diseases (e.g., diabetes, heart disease). Hormones: Imbalances can lead to health issues (e.g., thyroid problems). Immune Function: A weakened immune system increases vulnerability to infections. 2. Psychological Factors: Behavior: Habits like smoking, diet, and exercise affect health. Health Psychology Resume 1  Personality: Traits like optimism or hostility can influence stress and health outcomes. Cognition and Emotion: How we think and feel impacts our health. For example, chronic stress can lead to physical illnesses. 3. Social Factors: Education: Higher education often leads to better health awareness. Relationships: Supportive social networks can improve health, while isolation can be harmful. Gender and Employment: These influence access to resources and health behaviors. 4. Cultural Factors: Religion and Community: Can provide emotional support and promote healthy behaviors. Politics and Economics: Policies can affect healthcare access and public health strategies. 2. Concepts in Health Psychology Health Psychology focuses on improving overall health, preventing diseases, and managing existing health conditions through psychological principles and interventions. Main Aims of Health Psychology: 1. Promote Health and Well-being: Encouraging behaviors that improve physical and mental health, like regular exercise, balanced nutrition, and stress management techniques. 2. Prevent Illness: Identifying and reducing risk factors for diseases before they develop. For example, educating people on the dangers of smoking to prevent lung cancer. 3. Promote Illness and Disability Management: Health Psychology Resume 2  Helping individuals cope with chronic illnesses or disabilities through psychological support, behavior modification, and adherence to medical treatments. Disease Prevention Levels: 1. Primary Prevention: Focuses on preventing the initial development of diseases by reducing risk factors. Examples: Anti-smoking campaigns, vaccinations, promoting healthy diets and physical activity. Key Strategies: Behavior change advice, modifying environmental and social conditions. 2. Secondary Prevention: Involves early detection and intervention to stop the progression of diseases. Examples: Cancer screenings (like mammograms), routine health check-ups, blood pressure monitoring. Key Strategies: Screening programs and regular health assessments to catch diseases early. 3. Tertiary Prevention: Aims to manage and reduce the impact of established diseases, preventing complications and improving quality of life. Examples: Physical therapy after a stroke, patient education for diabetes management, rehabilitation programs. Key Strategies: Disease management plans, rehabilitation, and patient adherence to treatments. Key Takeaways: Primary = Prevention before disease starts. Secondary = Detecting disease early. Tertiary = Managing existing disease to prevent worsening. 3. Determinants of Health Health Psychology Resume 3  Determinants of health are factors that influence an individual's overall health status. These factors can be biological, social, environmental, or behavioral, and they interact to shape health outcomes. Types of Determinants: 1. Personal Determinants: Genetics: Inherited traits can predispose individuals to specific diseases (e.g., BRCA genes and breast cancer). Personality: Traits like optimism, resilience, or hostility influence how people manage stress and health behaviors. Cognitive Variables: How individuals process information, make decisions, and perceive risks impacts their health behaviors. Behaviors: Daily habits such as diet, physical activity, smoking, and alcohol use directly affect health. 2. Social Determinants: Income and Access to Resources: Higher income often correlates with better access to healthcare, healthier foods, and safe living environments. Education: More education generally leads to better health knowledge and healthier behaviors. Employment and Working Conditions: Job security, workplace safety, and stress levels at work influence health outcomes. 3. Environmental Determinants (Subgroup of Social Determinants): Access to Clean Water and Sanitation: Poor sanitation increases the risk of infectious diseases. Air Quality: Pollution exposure is linked to respiratory diseases like asthma and COPD. Living Conditions: Overcrowded or unsafe housing can increase the risk of injury and illness. 4. Commercial Determinants (Subgroup of Social Determinants): Availability and Pricing of Products: The marketing and affordability of unhealthy products (like tobacco, alcohol, fast food) influence health behaviors. Health Psychology Resume 4  Promotion of Health Services: How accessible and affordable health services are affects whether people seek care. Modifiable vs. Non-modifiable Determinants: Non-modifiable Determinants: Age: Risk for many diseases increases with age. Genetic Attributes: Inherited traits are beyond an individual’s control. Place of Birth: Geographic factors can influence exposure to health risks. Potentially Modifiable Determinants (Not Under Individual Control): Income: While individuals can work to improve income, systemic factors like economic policies also play a role. Education and Working Conditions: Access to education and job opportunities are influenced by societal factors. Potentially Modifiable Determinants (Under Individual Control): Beliefs: Personal health beliefs can be changed through education and experience. Behaviors: Lifestyle choices like diet, exercise, and substance use can be modified. Key Takeaways: Health outcomes result from the interaction of multiple determinants. While some factors like genetics are beyond our control, many social and behavioral determinants can be modified to improve health. 4. Health Behaviours Health behaviours are actions individuals take that influence their health, either positively or negatively. These behaviours can have immediate or long-term effects on physical and mental health. Types of Health Behaviours: 1. Health-Promotion Behaviours (Health-Enhancing): Actions that improve or maintain good health. Health Psychology Resume 5  Examples: Regular exercise, eating a balanced diet, getting enough sleep. 2. Health-Protective Behaviours: Behaviours that protect against disease or injury. Examples: Vaccinations, wearing seat belts, using condoms. 3. Health-Detection Behaviours: Actions aimed at identifying health problems early. Examples: Cancer screenings (mammograms, colonoscopies), self- examinations (breast or testicular), routine health check-ups. 4. Avoidance of Health Risk Behaviours: Avoiding activities that increase the risk of illness or injury. Examples: Not smoking, limiting alcohol consumption, avoiding excessive sun exposure without sunscreen. 5. Sick-Role Behaviours: Behaviours adopted when someone is ill to promote recovery or manage illness. Examples: Taking prescribed medications, attending follow-up appointments, resting when sick. Health Risk Behaviours: These are behaviours that increase the likelihood of developing health problems: Smoking: Major risk factor for lung cancer, COPD, and heart disease. Excessive Alcohol Consumption: Increases the risk of liver disease, certain cancers, and accidents. Unhealthy Diet: High intake of sugar, salt, and processed foods contributes to obesity, hypertension, and diabetes. Physical Inactivity: Increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and depression. Unsafe Sexual Practices: Increases the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unintended pregnancies. Health Psychology Resume 6  How Behaviour Influences Health: 1. Direct Biological Changes: Unhealthy behaviours like smoking directly damage organs (e.g., lungs). Healthy behaviours like exercise improve cardiovascular and immune function. 2. Exposure to Health Risks: Protective behaviours like using sunscreen reduce exposure to risks like skin cancer. Risky behaviours like excessive drinking increase vulnerability to accidents and injuries. 3. Disease Detection and Treatment: Early detection through screenings leads to more effective treatment and better outcomes. Key Takeaways: Understanding and modifying health behaviours are crucial for preventing diseases and promoting well-being. Small changes in daily habits can have a significant impact on long-term health. 5. Health Behaviour Theories Health behaviour theories explain why people engage in certain health behaviours and how these behaviours can be changed. They are essential for designing effective health interventions. 1. Health Behaviour Change Techniques (BCTs): BCTs are systematic methods used by health professionals to influence behaviour. They are grouped into 16 categories with 93 techniques in total. Examples of BCTs: Self-Monitoring (BCT 2.3): Tracking behaviours like daily exercise or food intake to increase awareness. Goal Setting (BCT 1.3): Setting specific, measurable, and achievable goals, such as aiming to walk 10,000 steps daily. Health Psychology Resume 7  Social Comparison (BCT 6.2): Comparing one’s behaviour to peers to motivate change. 2. Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning involves learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response due to repeated pairing with another stimulus. Example: If a person feels relaxed when listening to music and they start exercising with that same music, they may associate exercise with relaxation over time. Increasing Behaviour Frequency: Pairing healthy behaviours with positive experiences (e.g., rewarding yourself after a workout). Decreasing Behaviour Frequency: Associating unhealthy behaviours with negative outcomes (e.g., feeling sick after smoking may deter future smoking). 3. Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviours are shaped by rewards or punishments. Increasing Behaviour Frequency: Positive Reinforcement: Giving rewards for healthy behaviours (e.g., praise for quitting smoking). Continuous Reinforcement: Rewarding every instance of the desired behaviour initially, then shifting to partial reinforcement to maintain the habit. Decreasing Behaviour Frequency: Punishment or Removing Rewards: Removing positive outcomes or introducing negative consequences for unhealthy behaviours. 4. Social Cognitive Theory: Developed by Albert Bandura, this theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experiences, and self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to succeed). Health Psychology Resume 8  Key Concepts: Self-Efficacy: Individuals with high confidence in their abilities are more likely to attempt and persist in health behaviours. Observational Learning: People learn by watching others (e.g., seeing peers exercise may inspire someone to start). Sources of Self-Efficacy: Mastery Experiences: Successfully performing a behaviour increases confidence. Vicarious Experiences: Observing others succeed can boost belief in one’s own abilities. Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement from others reinforces confidence. Emotional State: Managing stress and emotions positively impacts self- efficacy. 5. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA): Developed by Fishbein & Ajzen in the 1970s, this theory suggests that intentions are the primary predictor of behaviour. Key Components: Attitudes: Positive or negative evaluations of performing the behaviour. Subjective Norms: Social pressure or expectations from others. Limitations: Assumes people have complete control over their behaviours, which may not be true for all situations. 6. Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB): An extension of the TRA, developed by Ajzen in the 1980s. It adds the concept of perceived behavioural control to account for situations where people may not have full control over their actions. Key Components: Attitude: How positively or negatively a person views the behaviour. Subjective Norms: Social influences and expectations. Perceived Behavioural Control: The person’s belief about how easy or difficult it is to perform the behaviour. Health Psychology Resume 9  Stronger intentions combined with higher perceived control lead to a higher likelihood of behaviour change. 7. Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change): Developed by Prochaska & DiClemente in the 1970s and 1980s, this model views behaviour change as a process with distinct stages. Stages of Change: 1. Precontemplation: No intention to change behaviour. 2. Contemplation: Considering change but not ready to act. 3. Preparation: Getting ready to take action soon. 4. Action: Actively making changes. 5. Maintenance: Sustaining the new behaviour over time. 6. Relapse (Optional): Returning to old behaviours but potentially re- entering the cycle. Processes of Change: Strategies like increasing self-awareness, seeking social support, and managing stress are used to progress through stages. Key Takeaways: These theories provide frameworks for understanding why people engage in health behaviours and how to design interventions that promote positive changes. 6. Intervention Strategies Intervention strategies in health psychology aim to promote healthy behaviours, prevent risky behaviours, and support individuals in managing chronic conditions. These strategies are based on behavioural theories and tailored to individual needs. 1. Readiness for Change (Assessing Motivation): Understanding an individual's readiness to change is crucial for tailoring interventions effectively. Assessment Scale (1 to 10): 1 to 3: Not considering change. Health Psychology Resume 10  4 to 7: Thinking about change, possibly preparing. 8 to 10: Ready to implement changes. Intervention Matching: For low readiness, focus on raising awareness. For medium readiness, provide tools and strategies to prepare. For high readiness, support action and maintenance. 2. Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change): This model (covered in Topic 5) guides interventions by aligning strategies with the individual's stage: Precontemplation: Provide information to raise awareness about risks. Contemplation: Discuss pros and cons, address ambivalence. Preparation: Help set realistic goals and develop action plans. Action: Support behaviour change through reinforcement and problem- solving. Maintenance: Prevent relapse by reinforcing positive behaviours and addressing challenges. 3. Motivational Interviewing (MI): A client-centered counselling approach designed to resolve ambivalence and promote intrinsic motivation for change. Core Principles of MI: 1. Express Empathy: Understanding the individual's perspective without judgment. 2. Develop Discrepancy: Highlighting the gap between current behaviours and personal goals/values. 3. Roll with Resistance: Avoid arguing; resistance is a natural part of change. 4. Support Self-Efficacy: Reinforce the belief that change is possible. Key Techniques: Health Psychology Resume 11  Open-ended Questions: Encourage exploration of thoughts and feelings. Reflective Listening: Demonstrate understanding and help individuals hear their own motivations. Eliciting "Change Talk": Encourage the person to verbalize reasons for change, which strengthens commitment. 4. Behaviour Change Techniques (BCTs): BCTs are specific strategies used within interventions to promote health behaviour changes. Here are some key techniques: Problem Solving (BCT 1.2): Identifying barriers and generating solutions. Example: "What prevents you from exercising? How could you overcome that?" Goal Setting (Outcome) (BCT 1.3): Defining clear, measurable goals. Example: "What’s your target weight loss over the next three months?" Action Planning (BCT 1.4): Creating detailed plans specifying when, where, and how to perform behaviours. Example: "When will you go for a run? Where will you do it?" Self-Monitoring (BCT 2.3 & 2.4): Tracking behaviour and outcomes to increase self-awareness. Example: Using a food diary to monitor dietary habits. Social Support (BCT 3.1): Encouraging engagement with supportive friends, family, or groups. Example: Joining a group exercise class. Reinforcement (BCT 10.4): Using rewards to strengthen positive behaviours. Example: Treating yourself to a movie after completing a week of workouts. 5. Implementation Intentions ("If-Then" Plans): These are specific plans that connect situational cues to goal-directed behaviours. Health Psychology Resume 12  Example: "If I feel stressed, then I will take a 5-minute walk instead of eating junk food." This approach helps make behaviours more automatic by linking them to specific triggers. 6. Addressing Barriers and Facilitators: Interventions often need to consider both obstacles and supports: Common Barriers: Lack of time, motivation, or resources. Social pressures or environmental challenges. Facilitators: Social support, access to resources, and clear action plans. 7. Tailoring Interventions: Effective interventions are personalized based on: Stage of Change: Aligning strategies with the individual's readiness. Cultural and Social Context: Considering cultural beliefs, social norms, and available resources. Individual Preferences: Adapting techniques to what resonates with the person. Key Takeaways: Intervention strategies in health psychology are multi-faceted, combining motivational techniques, behavioural planning, and tailored support to promote lasting health behaviour change. 7. Affective and Cognitive Determinants of Health Behaviours Health behaviours are influenced not only by rational thought processes (cognition) but also by emotions (affective factors). Understanding how these elements interact helps explain why people sometimes make health decisions that seem illogical or inconsistent. 1. Affective Determinants (Emotions and Moods): Health Psychology Resume 13  Affective factors include emotions, moods, and feelings that influence health behaviours, often at an unconscious level. Discrete Emotions: Short-lived, intense feelings tied to a specific cause. Examples: Fear of getting sick may prompt vaccination; joy may lead to celebrating with unhealthy foods. Mood: More generalized, longer-lasting emotional states not linked to a specific event. Examples: Feeling down might reduce motivation to exercise; a good mood might increase healthy choices. Stress: A negative physiological and emotional reaction to a perceived threat. Examples: Chronic stress can lead to unhealthy coping behaviours like overeating or smoking. 2. Cognitive Determinants (Thoughts, Beliefs, and Perceptions): Cognitive factors include beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions that guide health decisions. Attitudes: Positive or negative evaluations of a behaviour. Example: Believing that exercise is beneficial increases the likelihood of engaging in it. Risk Perception: How likely a person believes they are to experience a health issue. Example: Underestimating the risks of smoking might prevent someone from quitting. Beliefs About Control: Perceived behavioural control or self-efficacy influences whether people feel capable of making changes. Example: Someone who believes they can’t quit smoking is less likely to attempt it. 3. Interaction Between Affect and Cognition: Emotions and thoughts don’t operate in isolation; they influence each other in complex ways. Affect Influencing Cognition: Health Psychology Resume 14  Emotions can bias decision-making. For instance, fear may lead to overestimating health risks (e.g., overreacting to minor symptoms). Example: A person afraid of cancer may avoid screenings, despite knowing early detection saves lives. Cognition Influencing Affect: Thoughts and beliefs can trigger emotional responses. For example, believing that a headache signals a serious illness can cause anxiety. Example: Positive thinking about a healthy lifestyle can create feelings of pride and motivation. Ambivalence: When cognitive and emotional factors conflict, people may feel torn about health decisions. Example: Knowing that junk food is unhealthy (cognitive) but craving it for comfort (affective). 4. Affective Forecasting: Affective forecasting refers to predicting how one will feel in the future based on current decisions. People often misjudge how future events will affect their emotions, leading to poor health decisions. Example: Overestimating how hard quitting smoking will be emotionally might delay attempts to quit. 5. Stress and Health Behaviours: Stress has a significant impact on health behaviours, both directly and indirectly. Direct Effects: Chronic stress can lead to physiological changes that increase disease risk (e.g., high blood pressure). Indirect Effects: Stress often leads to unhealthy coping behaviours like overeating, drinking, or smoking. 6. Affect Regulation (Managing Emotions to Influence Behaviour): Affect regulation involves strategies to control emotional responses that influence health behaviours. Health Psychology Resume 15  Situation Selection: Choosing environments that support healthy behaviours. Example: Avoiding fast-food restaurants when trying to eat healthily. Modifying the Situation: Changing the environment to reduce temptations. Example: Keeping unhealthy snacks out of the house. Reassessing the Situation (Cognitive Reappraisal): Changing how you think about a situation to reduce negative emotions. Example: Viewing exercise not as a chore, but as a way to relieve stress. Distraction and Attention Control: Redirecting attention away from unhealthy cues. Example: Listening to music to distract from cravings. 7. Fear Appeals in Health Behaviour Change: Fear-based messages are often used in health campaigns (e.g., graphic images on cigarette packs). Effectiveness of Fear Appeals: They can be effective if paired with clear solutions and high self- efficacy. Example: Warning about lung cancer risk alongside resources for quitting smoking. Limitations: Excessive fear can lead to denial or avoidance rather than behaviour change. Key Takeaways: Health behaviours are influenced by a combination of cognitive factors (thoughts, beliefs, risk perception) and affective factors (emotions, moods, stress). Effective interventions address both elements to promote lasting behaviour change. 8. Situational Determinants and Environmental Interventions While personal choices and internal motivations play a role in health behaviours, the environment and external circumstances significantly influence Health Psychology Resume 16  those behaviours as well. Situational determinants refer to factors in the environment that can either promote or hinder healthy behaviours. 1. Situational Determinants of Health Behaviours: These are external factors in a person’s surroundings that can trigger or inhibit health behaviours. Physical Environment: Availability and accessibility of resources like parks, gyms, healthy food, and healthcare services. Example: Living near a park encourages physical activity, while living in a “food desert” limits access to healthy foods. Social Environment: Influence from family, friends, co-workers, and community norms. Example: If your friends smoke, you're more likely to smoke; if they exercise, you might join them. Economic Environment: Financial factors affecting the affordability of healthy choices. Example: High costs of gym memberships or healthy foods may discourage healthy behaviours. Cultural and Policy Environment: Cultural beliefs and government policies that shape health behaviours. Example: Public smoking bans reduce smoking rates, while cultural norms around body image might affect diet and exercise behaviours. 2. Interventions in Physical Environments: Modifying the environment is a powerful strategy to promote healthy behaviours because it reduces reliance on personal willpower. Nudging Healthy Behaviours: Small changes in the environment that encourage healthier choices without restricting freedom. Example: Placing healthier foods at eye level in grocery stores to encourage better eating habits. Health Psychology Resume 17  Environmental Restructuring: Changing the layout or structure of environments to facilitate healthy behaviours. Example: Creating more walking paths in urban areas to promote physical activity. Accessibility Improvements: Making healthy choices easier and more convenient. Example: Providing free or subsidized access to gyms, healthy foods, or healthcare services. 3. Advantages of Environmental Interventions: Wide Reach: Environmental changes affect entire populations, not just individuals. Example: A city-wide bike-sharing program encourages cycling for everyone in the area. Cost-Effective: Once implemented, environmental changes often require minimal ongoing effort or cost. Example: Adding sidewalks to a neighbourhood promotes walking for years with little maintenance. Less Reliant on Personal Motivation: By making healthy choices the default or easier option, interventions help even those with low motivation. Example: Making stairs more accessible and visible than elevators encourages incidental physical activity. 4. Situational Triggers and Behaviour: Certain environmental cues can act as triggers for health behaviours. Positive Triggers: Example: Keeping running shoes by the door reminds you to exercise. Negative Triggers: Example: Seeing junk food advertisements may increase unhealthy eating. Managing these cues is key to shaping health behaviours. 5. Implementation Intentions in Situational Contexts: Health Psychology Resume 18  Linking specific environmental cues to desired behaviours increases the likelihood of action. Example: “If I pass by the gym on my way home, then I will stop and work out for 30 minutes.” This strategy helps turn intentions into automatic behaviours by associating them with consistent environmental cues. 6. Health Information and Conflicting Messages: The environment also includes the information we are exposed to, which can shape health decisions. Conflicting Health Information: Exposure to mixed messages about health (e.g., changing guidelines on coffee, eggs, or fats) can create confusion and reduce trust in health advice. Example: One day you hear red wine is good for the heart; the next, it’s linked to cancer. Impact on Behaviour: Information Overload: Too much conflicting information can lead to decision paralysis or avoidance. Selective Attention: People may focus on information that aligns with their existing beliefs or desires. 7. Reducing Health Information Avoidance: Some people avoid health information due to fear or discomfort, which can prevent early detection or intervention. Strategies to Reduce Avoidance: Simplify and clarify information. Use non-threatening, supportive language. Frame information positively (e.g., focusing on benefits rather than risks). Key Takeaways: Situational determinants like the physical, social, and informational environments play a significant role in shaping health behaviours. By modifying Health Psychology Resume 19  these environments, we can promote healthier choices and reduce reliance on individual motivation. 9. Risk Perception and Decision Making Risk perception refers to how individuals assess the likelihood and severity of potential health threats. This perception plays a crucial role in health-related decision-making, influencing whether people adopt protective behaviours or engage in risky actions. 1. Components of Risk Perception: Risk perception isn’t purely rational; it’s influenced by both cognitive assessments and emotional responses. Perceived Susceptibility: How likely a person believes they are to experience a health problem. Example: A smoker who believes they are unlikely to develop lung cancer may continue smoking. Perceived Severity: How serious a person believes the consequences of a health issue will be. Example: Believing that high blood pressure isn’t a serious condition may reduce motivation to manage it. Perceived Control: The belief about how much control one has over preventing a health problem. Example: Someone who believes they can’t control their weight may be less likely to adopt healthy eating habits. 2. Heuristics in Risk Perception (Mental Shortcuts): Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that help people make quick judgments, but they can lead to biased or inaccurate risk assessments. Availability Heuristic: People judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. Example: Hearing frequent news stories about plane crashes may lead to overestimating the risk of flying, even though it's statistically very safe. Health Psychology Resume 20  Affect Heuristic: Emotions heavily influence how people perceive risks. If something evokes strong emotions, it feels riskier. Example: People may fear rare diseases like Ebola more than common but less dramatic risks like heart disease. Optimism Bias: The belief that negative events are more likely to happen to others than to oneself. Example: A young person may acknowledge the risks of texting while driving but believe they are personally less likely to have an accident. 3. Affective Forecasting and Decision Making: Affective forecasting is the process of predicting how future events will make us feel, which influences health decisions. Overestimating Emotional Impact: People often think the emotional impact of health changes (like quitting smoking) will be worse than it actually is, which may deter them from making positive changes. Example: Expecting to feel miserable after starting a diet might prevent someone from even trying. 4. Framing Effects in Health Messages: The way health information is presented (framed) can significantly affect decision-making. Gain-Framed Messages: Emphasize the benefits of engaging in a healthy behaviour. Example: “Wearing sunscreen will protect your skin and keep it youthful.” Most Effective for: Preventive behaviours like vaccinations and screenings. Loss-Framed Messages: Highlight the negative consequences of not engaging in a behaviour. Example: “Not wearing sunscreen increases your risk of skin cancer.” Most Effective for: Encouraging detection behaviours (e.g., cancer screenings). 5. Errors in Risk Perception: Health Psychology Resume 21  Misjudging risks can lead to poor health decisions, such as avoiding necessary medical procedures or engaging in dangerous behaviours. Underestimation of Common Risks: People often underestimate risks that are familiar or gradual. Example: Ignoring the long-term risks of obesity because the consequences develop slowly over time. Overestimation of Rare but Dramatic Risks: Rare events that are highly publicized or emotionally charged are perceived as more likely than they are. Example: Fearing rare side effects of vaccines more than the common risk of contracting the disease. 6. Conflicting Health Information: Exposure to conflicting health information can create confusion and reduce trust in health recommendations. Sources of Conflict: Different studies or experts presenting contradictory findings (e.g., debates over whether coffee is good or bad for health). Rapid changes in health guidelines (e.g., shifting recommendations on dietary fats). Impact on Decision Making: Decision Paralysis: People may avoid making health decisions altogether when faced with too much conflicting information. Selective Exposure: People may only seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs. 7. Strategies to Improve Risk Perception and Decision Making: Simplifying Information: Clear, concise health messages can help people understand actual risks. Example: Using visual aids (like charts or infographics) to communicate complex health data. Personalizing Risk Information: Making risks feel relevant to the individual increases motivation to act. Health Psychology Resume 22  Example: Doctors explaining a patient’s personal risk based on their health history. Encouraging Reflective Thinking: Helping people move beyond emotional reactions to consider facts. Example: Asking someone to weigh the pros and cons of a behaviour like smoking. Key Takeaways: Risk perception and decision-making are influenced by both rational thought and emotional responses. Understanding how people perceive risks can help design effective health interventions that encourage better health choices. 10. Illness and Treatment Representations Illness and treatment representations refer to the personal beliefs and perceptions people hold about diseases and their treatments. These mental models influence how individuals recognize symptoms, seek treatment, adhere to medical advice, and cope with illness. 1. Common-Sense Model of Illness Self-Regulation (Leventhal’s Model): Developed by Howard Leventhal in the 1980s, this model explains how people detect, interpret, and respond to health threats. According to this model, individuals form cognitive (thought-based) and emotional representations of illness that guide their behaviours. Cognitive Representations: Beliefs about the illness itself. Emotional Representations: Feelings like fear, anxiety, or anger triggered by the illness. These representations interact to shape health-related behaviours, such as seeking treatment, adhering to medications, or engaging in preventive actions. 2. Key Components of Illness Representations: 1. Identity: The name and symptoms associated with an illness. Example: Recognizing that a persistent cough, fever, and fatigue may signal pneumonia. Health Psychology Resume 23  2. Cause: Beliefs about what caused the illness. Example: Attributing heart disease to genetics vs. lifestyle factors like diet and exercise. 3. Timeline: Beliefs about the duration of the illness—whether it’s acute, chronic, or cyclical. Example: Believing that diabetes is a lifelong condition vs. thinking it can be "cured" with short-term changes. 4. Consequences: Perceived effects of the illness on one’s life, including physical, emotional, and social impacts. Example: Viewing cancer as a life-threatening condition vs. a manageable chronic disease. 5. Control/Cure: Beliefs about whether the illness can be controlled or cured, and how. Example: Believing that hypertension can be managed with medication and lifestyle changes. 6. Coherence: How well an individual understands their illness and how consistent their beliefs are. Example: A person may know they have asthma but misunderstand what triggers their symptoms, leading to poor management. 3. Emotional Representations of Illness: Emotional responses to illness can significantly affect health behaviours. Fear and Anxiety: May motivate immediate action (e.g., seeking medical help) but can also cause avoidance (e.g., refusing screenings out of fear of bad news). Depression or Hopelessness: Can reduce motivation to adhere to treatments or seek help. Health Psychology Resume 24  Anger or Frustration: May be directed at healthcare providers or oneself, influencing the willingness to engage in care. 4. Treatment Representations: Just as people form beliefs about illnesses, they also develop perceptions about treatments, which influence adherence and engagement. Necessity Beliefs: Beliefs about how essential a treatment is for managing an illness. Example: Believing that insulin is critical for diabetes management increases adherence. Concerns About Treatment: Worries about side effects, dependency, or the impact of treatment on daily life. Example: Fear of medication side effects may lead to non-adherence. Perceived Effectiveness: Belief in how well a treatment will work. Example: Thinking that physical therapy won’t help might lead to skipping sessions. Emotional Responses to Treatment: Treatments may evoke emotions like hope, anxiety, or frustration. Example: Chemotherapy may be viewed as both a hopeful and terrifying process. 5. How Illness and Treatment Representations Influence Behaviour: 1. Symptom Perception and Help-Seeking: If symptoms match a person’s illness identity, they are more likely to seek help. Example: Someone familiar with heart attack symptoms will seek immediate help when experiencing chest pain. 2. Adherence to Treatment: Strong necessity beliefs and low concerns about treatment lead to better adherence. Example: Believing that blood pressure medication is vital and having few concerns about side effects promotes consistent use. Health Psychology Resume 25  3. Coping Strategies: Representations influence whether people use adaptive coping (e.g., problem-solving, seeking support) or maladaptive coping (e.g., denial, avoidance). Example: Believing an illness is uncontrollable may lead to giving up on treatments. 6. Belief Modification: Beliefs about illness and treatment can be resistant to change but can be modified through targeted interventions. Educational Interventions: Providing accurate information about the illness and treatments. Example: Diabetes education classes to clarify misconceptions about diet and insulin. Cognitive-Behavioural Techniques: Challenging and restructuring unhelpful beliefs. Example: Addressing irrational fears about medication side effects through counselling. Personal Experience: Changes in symptoms or treatment outcomes can shift beliefs. Example: Experiencing symptom relief after starting medication reinforces the belief in its necessity. 7. The Role of Healthcare Providers: Clear Communication: Explaining diagnoses, treatments, and potential outcomes in simple, understandable language. Empathy and Support: Addressing emotional responses and concerns about illness and treatment. Shared Decision-Making: Involving patients in treatment choices to align medical recommendations with personal beliefs and preferences. Key Takeaways: People’s beliefs about illnesses and treatments shape how they recognize symptoms, seek care, adhere to treatments, and cope with health conditions. Health Psychology Resume 26  Addressing both cognitive and emotional representations can improve health outcomes. 11. Adherence to Medical Recommendations Adherence refers to the degree to which a person's behaviour aligns with the medical advice provided by healthcare professionals. This includes following medication regimens, attending follow-up appointments, adopting lifestyle changes, and participating in therapy. 1. Types of Adherence Behaviours: 1. Medication Adherence: Taking prescribed medications correctly (right dose, time, and duration). Example: Taking antibiotics for the full prescribed course, even after symptoms improve. 2. Lifestyle Adherence: Following recommendations related to diet, exercise, smoking cessation, or alcohol reduction. Example: Following a low-sodium diet to manage hypertension. 3. Therapy Adherence: Consistently participating in prescribed therapies, such as physical therapy or counselling sessions. Example: Regularly attending physiotherapy for injury rehabilitation. 4. Monitoring Adherence: Performing self-monitoring tasks like checking blood glucose levels for diabetes or blood pressure at home. Example: Using a glucometer daily for diabetes management. 5. Follow-up Adherence: Attending follow-up medical appointments and screenings. Example: Scheduling regular mammograms or colonoscopies for cancer screening. Health Psychology Resume 27  2. Patterns of Non-Adherence: Non-adherence can be intentional or unintentional, and it varies between individuals. 1. Intentional Non-Adherence: Deliberate decision not to follow medical advice, often due to personal beliefs, fears, or perceived side effects. Example: Stopping medication due to fear of side effects or believing the treatment is unnecessary. 2. Unintentional Non-Adherence: Occurs due to forgetfulness, misunderstanding instructions, or logistical barriers (e.g., cost, transportation). Example: Missing doses because of a complicated medication schedule. 3. Variable Adherence: Fluctuating adherence based on symptoms, motivation, or life circumstances. Example: Taking medication only when symptoms worsen. 3. Factors Influencing Adherence: 1. Patient-Related Factors: Beliefs and Perceptions: Understanding of the illness and treatment necessity. Motivation and Self-Efficacy: Confidence in the ability to follow through with recommendations. Cognitive Factors: Memory, attention, and comprehension of medical instructions. 2. Condition-Related Factors: Chronic vs. Acute Illness: Adherence tends to be higher for short-term treatments than for chronic conditions requiring long-term management. Symptom Visibility: Conditions with visible or painful symptoms (e.g., migraines) often have higher adherence than asymptomatic ones (e.g., Health Psychology Resume 28  hypertension). 3. Treatment-Related Factors: Complexity of Regimen: More complicated regimens decrease adherence (e.g., multiple medications with different dosing schedules). Side Effects: Fear of or actual side effects can deter adherence. Duration of Treatment: Longer treatments often lead to reduced adherence over time. 4. Healthcare System Factors: Patient-Provider Relationship: Trust, communication, and empathy from healthcare professionals promote adherence. Accessibility: Cost of medications, transportation, and ease of scheduling appointments impact adherence. 5. Social and Environmental Factors: Social Support: Encouragement from family and friends can improve adherence. Cultural Beliefs: Cultural norms and traditional medicine beliefs may affect adherence to Western medical advice. 4. The Information-Motivation-Strategy (IMS) Model: This model integrates three key elements to explain and improve adherence: 1. Information: Patients need clear, accurate, and relevant information about their condition and treatment. Example: Understanding why hypertension medication is necessary even if no symptoms are present. 2. Motivation: Patients must be personally motivated, believing in the benefits of adherence and feeling capable of making changes. Example: A diabetic patient motivated by the desire to avoid complications like neuropathy. 3. Strategies: Health Psychology Resume 29  Practical tools and support to help patients overcome barriers to adherence. Example: Using pill organizers or setting reminders to take medication. 5. Barriers to Adherence: 1. Information-Related Barriers: Misunderstanding medical instructions or lacking knowledge about the illness. Example: Believing that antibiotics can be stopped once symptoms improve. 2. Motivation-Related Barriers: Lack of perceived need for treatment, low confidence, or fear of side effects. Example: Feeling skeptical about the effectiveness of a prescribed diet. 3. Strategy-Related Barriers: Practical obstacles like financial costs, complex regimens, or lack of transportation. Example: Forgetting to take medication due to a busy schedule. 6. Strategies to Promote Adherence: 1. Simplifying Treatment Regimens: Reducing the number of daily doses or combining medications when possible. Example: Switching from multiple daily doses to a once-daily medication. 2. Enhancing Patient Education: Providing clear, jargon-free explanations about the illness and the importance of treatment. Example: Using diagrams or models to explain how a medication works. 3. Motivational Interviewing: Using a patient-centered approach to address ambivalence and foster intrinsic motivation. Health Psychology Resume 30  Example: Discussing a patient’s personal goals and how adherence supports those goals. 4. Behavioural Techniques: Self-Monitoring: Encouraging patients to track their behaviours, like medication intake. Reminders: Using alarms, apps, or family support to remind patients to take medications. 5. Improving the Healthcare Relationship: Building trust and involving patients in decision-making. Example: Collaboratively setting treatment goals that align with the patient’s values and lifestyle. 6. Social Support: Involving family, friends, or support groups in the treatment process. Example: Encouraging a spouse to participate in a partner’s weight-loss journey. 7. Assessing Adherence: 1. Self-Reports: Asking patients directly about their adherence (though this may be biased). 2. Pill Counts: Counting the number of pills remaining to assess if medications are taken as prescribed. 3. Electronic Monitoring: Using devices that record when a medication bottle is opened. 4. Biological Measures: Testing blood levels to confirm medication adherence (e.g., measuring glucose levels in diabetics). Key Takeaways: Adherence to medical recommendations is essential for effective health management. It is influenced by a complex interplay of personal, social, and systemic factors. Addressing barriers through education, motivation, and practical support can significantly improve adherence and health outcomes. 12. Stress and Health Health Psychology Resume 31  Stress is a physical, emotional, and psychological response to perceived threats or challenges. While short-term (acute) stress can be beneficial in motivating action, chronic stress can negatively impact both physical and mental health, increasing the risk of numerous diseases. 1. What is Stress? Definition: Stress occurs when the demands of a situation exceed an individual's perceived ability to cope. Example: Facing an upcoming exam might trigger stress if you feel unprepared. Types of Stress: 1. Acute Stress: Short-term stress that arises from immediate threats or challenges. Example: Nervousness before a public speaking event. 2. Chronic Stress: Long-term stress resulting from ongoing challenges or persistent pressures. Example: Financial difficulties or caregiving for a chronically ill family member. 2. Types of Stressors (Sources of Stress): 1. Traumas: Severe, life-threatening events that challenge a person’s sense of safety or identity. Examples: Physical assault, natural disasters, or severe accidents. 2. Life Events: Major changes or transitions that require significant adjustment. Examples: Divorce, loss of a loved one, moving to a new city. 3. Chronic Stressors: Persistent, long-term pressures that continue over time. Examples: Job insecurity, chronic illness, or caregiving responsibilities. 4. Daily Hassles: Minor, everyday irritations that accumulate over time. Examples: Traffic jams, conflicts with coworkers, or running late. 5. Non-Events: Anticipated positive events that do not occur, leading to disappointment. Health Psychology Resume 32  Examples: Not receiving a job promotion or missing out on a relationship. 3. Stress Responses: Stress triggers both physiological and psychological responses, which are designed to help the body cope with challenges. Physiological Responses: 1. Sympathetic Nervous System Activation ("Fight or Flight" Response): Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and adrenaline to prepare for immediate action. 2. Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis Activation: Releases cortisol, a stress hormone that regulates energy and suppresses non-essential functions. Psychological Responses: Emotional changes such as anxiety, irritability, or depression. Cognitive effects like difficulty concentrating or making decisions. Behavioural changes, including increased use of substances like alcohol or tobacco. 4. Stress and Health Outcomes: Chronic stress can have widespread negative effects on health, contributing to both mental and physical illnesses. 1. Cardiovascular Disease: Prolonged stress increases blood pressure, heart rate, and inflammation, raising the risk of heart disease and stroke. 2. Immune System Suppression: Chronic stress weakens the immune response, making individuals more susceptible to infections and slowing wound healing. 3. Digestive Problems: Stress can cause or worsen conditions like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), ulcers, and acid reflux. 4. Metabolic Disorders: Health Psychology Resume 33  Elevated cortisol levels can lead to weight gain, insulin resistance, and increased risk of diabetes. 5. Mental Health Issues: Stress is a major contributor to anxiety, depression, and burnout. 6. Sleep Disorders: Stress can cause insomnia and poor sleep quality, which further exacerbates health issues. 5. The Stage Model of Stress and Disease: This model outlines the progression from stress exposure to disease development: 1. Exposure to Stressors: Encountering challenging situations (e.g., work pressure, personal loss). 2. Perception and Appraisal: Assessing whether the situation is a threat and if resources are sufficient to cope. 3. Stress Response: Activation of physiological and psychological mechanisms to manage the stressor. 4. Allostatic Load: Chronic activation of stress responses leads to wear and tear on the body. 5. Disease Onset: Prolonged stress can contribute to the development of physical or mental health conditions. 6. Allostatic Load (Wear and Tear from Chronic Stress): Definition: Allostatic load refers to the cumulative burden of chronic stress on the body. Over time, constant activation of stress responses damages physiological systems. Consequences of Allostatic Load: 1. Cardiovascular Strain: Persistent high blood pressure and heart rate. 2. Hormonal Imbalances: Dysregulation of cortisol and other stress hormones. 3. Immune Dysfunction: Increased inflammation and reduced immune function. Health Psychology Resume 34  4. Metabolic Disruptions: Changes in appetite, weight gain, and increased risk of diabetes. 7. Stress-Related Disorders: 1. Psychophysiological Disorders: Physical illnesses that are influenced or worsened by psychological factors. Examples: Hypertension, tension headaches, asthma, and skin disorders like eczema. 2. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A condition that develops after exposure to a traumatic event, characterized by flashbacks, avoidance behaviours, and heightened arousal. 3. Anxiety and Depression: Chronic stress is a significant risk factor for mood disorders, leading to persistent worry, sadness, and loss of interest in activities. 4. Burnout: A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress, particularly in the workplace. 8. Coping with Stress (Adaptive and Maladaptive Strategies): 1. Adaptive Coping Strategies (Healthy Responses): Problem-Solving: Actively addressing the source of stress. Example: Creating a study schedule to manage exam anxiety. Emotion Regulation: Managing emotional responses through mindfulness, relaxation techniques, or therapy. Example: Practicing deep breathing exercises to reduce anxiety. Social Support: Seeking help and comfort from friends, family, or support groups. Example: Talking to a friend about stress at work. 2. Maladaptive Coping Strategies (Unhealthy Responses): Avoidance: Ignoring or denying the problem. Example: Avoiding medical appointments despite symptoms. Substance Use: Using alcohol, drugs, or food to escape stress. Example: Drinking excessively to cope with relationship issues. Health Psychology Resume 35  Aggression or Withdrawal: Reacting with anger or isolating oneself from others. 9. Resilience and Stress Management: 1. Resilience: The ability to adapt and recover from stress or adversity. Factors that promote resilience include optimism, flexibility, strong social connections, and effective coping skills. 2. Stress Management Techniques: Relaxation Techniques: Deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and meditation. Mindfulness: Focusing on the present moment to reduce rumination and anxiety. Physical Activity: Regular exercise reduces stress hormones and promotes well-being. Time Management: Organizing tasks and setting priorities to reduce overwhelm. Key Takeaways: Stress is a natural response to challenges but can become harmful when chronic. It affects physical and mental health through physiological changes and unhealthy coping behaviours. Effective stress management and resilience- building techniques can reduce the negative impact of stress on health. 13. Personality and Health Personality refers to the enduring traits and patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize an individual. These traits influence how people perceive and respond to health-related situations, affecting both physical and mental health outcomes. 1. How Personality Influences Health: Personality impacts health through three main mechanisms: 1. Health-Related Behaviours: Personality traits influence lifestyle choices, such as diet, exercise, smoking, and adherence to medical advice. Health Psychology Resume 36  Example: A conscientious person is more likely to follow a healthy diet and adhere to prescribed treatments. 2. Physiological Responses to Stress: Some personality traits affect how individuals perceive stress and how their bodies respond to it. Example: A person with high neuroticism may experience more intense stress responses, increasing the risk of hypertension or heart disease. 3. Social Relationships: Personality shapes how people interact with others, influencing their social support networks and emotional well-being. Example: Extroverted individuals may build strong support systems, which are protective for mental health. 2. The Five-Factor Model of Personality (The "Big Five"): This widely accepted model categorizes personality into five broad traits, each of which has implications for health. 1. Conscientiousness: Traits: Organized, responsible, disciplined. Health Impact: Strongly associated with positive health behaviours, better self-care, and lower risk of chronic diseases. Example: High conscientiousness is linked to longevity due to healthier lifestyles and better adherence to medical advice. 2. Neuroticism: Traits: Anxious, moody, emotionally unstable. Health Impact: Linked to negative health outcomes, such as increased risk of mental health disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression) and stress- related physical conditions. Example: High neuroticism can lead to chronic stress, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease. 3. Extraversion: Traits: Outgoing, energetic, sociable. Health Psychology Resume 37  Health Impact: Associated with better mental health due to strong social networks, but may also correlate with risky behaviours (e.g., substance use). Example: Extroverts may experience fewer symptoms of depression due to strong social support. 4. Agreeableness: Traits: Cooperative, compassionate, trusting. Health Impact: Linked to better interpersonal relationships and reduced stress, which can promote overall health. Example: Highly agreeable individuals may have lower levels of conflict and stress in relationships, supporting heart health. 5. Openness to Experience: Traits: Curious, creative, open to new experiences. Health Impact: May lead to engagement in diverse health-promoting activities, such as trying new diets or exercise routines. Example: Open individuals might be more receptive to alternative health interventions or preventive care. 3. Personality Types and Specific Health Risks: 1. Type A Personality: Traits: Competitive, ambitious, time-urgent, and hostile. Health Impact: Initially linked to increased risk of coronary heart disease due to chronic stress and hostility. Example: Hostility and anger, rather than competitiveness, are the primary factors contributing to heart disease in Type A individuals. 2. Type B Personality: Traits: Relaxed, patient, easy-going. Health Impact: Associated with lower stress levels and reduced risk of stress-related health issues. Example: Type B individuals may be less prone to hypertension compared to Type A personalities. Health Psychology Resume 38  3. Hostility and Health: Hostility is a key component of Type A behaviour and is strongly linked to negative health outcomes, particularly cardiovascular disease. Example: Chronic hostility increases blood pressure and stress hormone levels, damaging the cardiovascular system. 4. Optimism vs. Pessimism: Optimists tend to experience better health outcomes, recover more quickly from illness, and engage in more health-promoting behaviours. Pessimists are more likely to develop mental health issues and experience chronic stress. Example: Optimistic individuals might adhere better to treatment plans after a serious diagnosis, improving recovery outcomes. 4. Personality and Coping with Illness: 1. Resilient Personalities: Traits like optimism, emotional stability, and conscientiousness contribute to resilience, allowing individuals to better manage chronic illnesses or recover from acute health events. 2. Vulnerable Personalities: Traits such as high neuroticism or low agreeableness may lead to poor coping strategies, increased stress, and a greater likelihood of non- adherence to treatments. 3. Personality and Pain Perception: People with high neuroticism may perceive pain as more intense, while those with higher emotional stability may experience less distress in response to pain. 5. Personality and Mental Health: Personality traits are closely linked to the risk of developing mental health disorders. 1. Neuroticism and Anxiety/Depression: High neuroticism increases vulnerability to anxiety, depression, and mood disorders. Health Psychology Resume 39  Example: A person prone to worry may struggle with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). 2. Conscientiousness and Mental Health: High conscientiousness is protective against mental health issues due to better self-regulation and coping strategies. Example: Organized individuals may manage stress more effectively, reducing the risk of depression. 3. Extraversion and Well-Being: Extraversion is associated with higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction due to stronger social networks and more positive interactions. Example: Extroverted people are more likely to engage in activities that promote mental well-being, like socializing or group exercise. 6. Loneliness, Social Connection, and Health: 1. Loneliness: Defined as the subjective feeling of being socially isolated, even if one is surrounded by people. Health Impact: Chronic loneliness is linked to increased risk of depression, anxiety, cognitive decline, and even premature death. Example: Loneliness is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and weakened immune function. 2. Social Connection: Strong social relationships act as a buffer against stress and promote both mental and physical health. Health Impact: Higher social connection is associated with lower blood pressure, better immune responses, and longer life expectancy. Example: Married individuals often have better health outcomes than single individuals due to emotional and practical support. 7. The Dyadic Biobehavioural Stress Model: This model focuses on how relationships, particularly romantic partnerships, influence health. Health Psychology Resume 40  1. Positive Relationships: Supportive relationships reduce stress, promote healthy behaviours, and improve overall well-being. Example: A partner encouraging regular exercise can lead to better physical health. 2. Negative Relationships: Conflict and emotional strain in relationships can increase stress hormones, leading to health problems. Example: Chronic relationship conflict is associated with higher blood pressure and greater risk of heart disease. Key Takeaways: Personality traits significantly influence health behaviours, stress responses, and social relationships, all of which affect physical and mental health outcomes. Traits like conscientiousness promote health, while traits like neuroticism and hostility increase health risks. 14. Social Relationships and Health Social relationships are a critical determinant of both physical and mental health. The quality, quantity, and type of social connections we maintain can influence health behaviours, stress responses, and overall well-being. 1. The Role of Social Relationships in Health: 1. Emotional Support: Providing empathy, care, love, and trust during stressful times. Example: Talking to a close friend during a difficult period can reduce anxiety and promote mental well-being. 2. Instrumental Support: Offering practical help, such as financial assistance, transportation, or help with daily tasks. Example: A friend driving you to medical appointments after surgery. 3. Informational Support: Health Psychology Resume 41  Providing advice, guidance, or information that helps with problem- solving. Example: A family member sharing tips on managing a chronic condition like diabetes. 4. Appraisal Support: Offering feedback and affirmation, helping individuals evaluate their situations. Example: A friend reassuring you about a job interview or health scare. 2. Social Connection and Physical Health: 1. Improved Immune Function: Strong social ties are associated with better immune responses, making people less susceptible to illnesses. Example: People with larger social networks are less likely to catch colds or recover faster from illness. 2. Lower Risk of Chronic Diseases: Social support reduces stress-related health risks, such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and inflammation. Example: Married individuals or those in close partnerships tend to have lower rates of heart disease. 3. Longer Life Expectancy: Studies show that social isolation is as harmful to health as smoking or obesity, while strong social bonds increase longevity. Example: Elderly individuals with strong social connections live longer and maintain better cognitive function. 4. Faster Recovery from Illness: Supportive relationships can aid in faster recovery from surgeries, heart attacks, and other health crises. Example: Patients with strong social support recover more quickly from heart surgeries compared to those who are socially isolated. 3. Social Connection and Mental Health: Health Psychology Resume 42  1. Reduced Risk of Depression and Anxiety: Social connections buffer against mental health disorders by providing emotional support and reducing feelings of loneliness. Example: Individuals who feel connected to friends and family have lower rates of depression. 2. Stress Reduction: Positive relationships reduce the physiological effects of stress, lowering cortisol levels and promoting relaxation. Example: A supportive partner can help calm you down during stressful events. 3. Enhanced Self-Esteem and Confidence: Receiving affirmation and support from others reinforces self-worth and confidence. Example: Encouragement from friends or colleagues can boost motivation and resilience. 4. The Impact of Loneliness on Health: 1. Definition of Loneliness: Loneliness is the subjective feeling of being socially isolated, even if surrounded by people. 2. Health Consequences of Loneliness: Physical Health: Increased risk of cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, and weakened immune function. Example: Chronic loneliness can elevate stress hormones, leading to heart disease. Higher risk of early mortality, comparable to risks from obesity or smoking. Mental Health: Greater likelihood of developing depression, anxiety, and cognitive decline. Health Psychology Resume 43  Example: Loneliness in older adults is associated with higher risks of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. 3. Populations at Risk for Loneliness: Elderly individuals, people with chronic illnesses, and those experiencing major life changes (e.g., moving to a new city, losing a spouse). Example: Older adults living alone are at higher risk of both physical and mental health issues due to loneliness. 5. Couple Relationships and Health: 1. Positive Relationships and Health Benefits: Being in a healthy, supportive relationship can improve physical and mental health outcomes. Example: Married individuals generally have lower rates of depression and better physical health. 2. Negative Relationships and Health Risks: Conflict, emotional strain, and toxic relationships increase stress and health risks. Example: Chronic marital conflict can elevate blood pressure and increase the risk of heart disease. 3. Dyadic Biobehavioural Stress Model: This model suggests that stress and health behaviours in couples are interconnected. A partner’s stress can affect the other’s health and vice versa. Example: If one partner experiences high stress at work, it may lead to increased tension in the relationship, affecting both partners' health. 6. Social Isolation vs. Social Support: 1. Social Isolation: Objective lack of social contact or relationships, which can lead to loneliness. Health Psychology Resume 44  Health Risks: Increased mortality risk, higher rates of chronic diseases, and mental health disorders. 2. Social Support: The perception or reality of being cared for and having assistance from others. Health Benefits: Improved immune function, lower stress levels, and better mental health. 7. Building and Maintaining Healthy Social Relationships: 1. Active Social Engagement: Participate in community activities, clubs, or interest groups to build connections. Example: Joining a fitness class or volunteering can help foster new relationships. 2. Quality Over Quantity: Strong, meaningful relationships are more beneficial than having many superficial connections. Example: A few close friends who provide emotional support are more valuable than many acquaintances. 3. Communication Skills: Open, honest, and empathetic communication strengthens relationships. Example: Regularly checking in with friends or family to maintain emotional closeness. 4. Reciprocity and Support: Offering support to others not only helps them but also strengthens bonds and enhances your own sense of connection. Example: Helping a friend during tough times can reinforce mutual trust and connection. Key Takeaways: Social relationships play a crucial role in promoting health and preventing disease. Strong social connections reduce stress, improve mental health, and Health Psychology Resume 45  increase longevity, while loneliness and social isolation pose significant health risks. 15. Chronic Diseases Chronic diseases are long-term health conditions that typically progress slowly and can persist for months or years. These diseases often require ongoing medical attention and can significantly affect an individual’s quality of life. Unlike acute illnesses, chronic diseases are usually not curable but can often be managed effectively through treatment and lifestyle changes. 1. Characteristics of Chronic Diseases: 1. Long Duration and Slow Progression: Chronic diseases develop gradually and last for extended periods, often a lifetime. Example: Diabetes, hypertension, and arthritis. 2. Complex Causes: Result from a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental, and behavioural factors. Example: Heart disease may be influenced by genetics, poor diet, lack of exercise, and smoking. 3. Manageable but Not Curable: Most chronic conditions can be controlled with medication, lifestyle changes, and regular monitoring, but they cannot be entirely cured. Example: Asthma can be managed with inhalers and avoiding triggers, but it persists over time. 4. Impact on Daily Life: Chronic diseases can lead to physical limitations, emotional distress, and financial burdens due to medical costs and loss of productivity. Example: Chronic pain from arthritis can limit mobility and reduce participation in daily activities. 2. Common Chronic Diseases: 1. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD): Health Psychology Resume 46  Includes conditions like heart disease, hypertension, and stroke. Risk Factors: High cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, obesity. 2. Diabetes Mellitus: A metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels due to insulin resistance or deficiency. Types: Type 1 (autoimmune), Type 2 (lifestyle-related), and gestational diabetes. 3. Chronic Respiratory Diseases: Includes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and chronic bronchitis. Risk Factors: Smoking, environmental pollutants, genetic predisposition. 4. Cancer: Uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body. Risk Factors: Genetics, smoking, diet, exposure to carcinogens. 5. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Gradual loss of kidney function over time. Risk Factors: Diabetes, hypertension, genetic factors. 6. Musculoskeletal Disorders: Includes arthritis, osteoporosis, and chronic back pain. Risk Factors: Aging, physical inactivity, poor posture, genetic predisposition. 7. Neurological Disorders: Includes Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis. Risk Factors: Age, genetics, environmental exposures. 3. Global Impact of Chronic Diseases: 1. Leading Cause of Death Worldwide: Health Psychology Resume 47  Chronic diseases account for approximately 74% of deaths globally, with cardiovascular diseases being the top cause. Example: Heart disease and stroke are responsible for the majority of non-communicable disease deaths. 2. Premature Deaths: A significant portion of chronic disease-related deaths occur in people aged 30 to 69 years. Example: Lifestyle-related conditions like diabetes and hypertension often affect people in their prime working years. 3. Economic Burden: Chronic diseases lead to increased healthcare costs, reduced productivity, and economic strain on families and health systems. Example: The cost of managing diabetes includes medications, frequent doctor visits, and potential complications like amputations. 4. Risk Factors for Chronic Diseases: 1. Modifiable Risk Factors: These are behaviours or exposures that can be changed to reduce the risk of chronic disease. Tobacco Use: Major risk factor for cancer, heart disease, and COPD. Unhealthy Diet: High in sugars, fats, and salt, leading to obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. Physical Inactivity: Contributes to obesity, heart disease, and mental health issues. Excessive Alcohol Consumption: Increases the risk of liver disease, certain cancers, and heart disease. 2. Non-Modifiable Risk Factors: Factors that cannot be changed but influence susc