Cognition: Memory & Critical Thinking PDF

COGNITION: MEMORY Module 2.2a Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, & Decision Making: Concepts & Creativity 1. What is cognition? Cognition refers to all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. 2. What is meta-cognition? Meta-cognition is the abi...

COGNITION: MEMORY Module 2.2a Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, & Decision Making: Concepts & Creativity 1. What is cognition? Cognition refers to all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. 2. What is meta-cognition? Meta-cognition is the ability to think about one’s own thought processes and strategies. 3. What is a concept? A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people 4. Explain what the following are and how they help to form our concepts? a. Schemas: Schemas are mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information, aiding in understanding and forming concepts. b. Prototypes: Prototypes are the best examples or representations of a concept, making it easier to identify new instances. c. Assimilation: Assimilation is incorporating new information into existing schemas. d. Accommodation: Accommodation is adjusting or modifying existing schemas to fit new information. 5. How do you define creativity? Creativity involves producing novel and valuable ideas or solutions. 6. Explain the difference between convergent and divergent thinking. - Convergent Thinking:  Convergent thinking focuses on narrowing down multiple ideas to find a single, best solution. - Divergent Thinking: Divergent thinking generates many possible solutions, fostering creativity and open-ended exploration 7. What is Functional Fixedness and how does it hinder creativity? Functional fixedness is the inability to see new uses for familiar objects, which limits creative problem-solving. 8. Sternberg’s Components of Creativity - Expertise - Imaginative thinking - Venturesome personality - Intrinsic motivation - Creative environment Module 2.2b Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, & Decision Making: Solving Problems & Making Decisions 9. What are executive functions? Executive functions are cognitive processes like planning, decision-making, and problem-solving that guide goal-directed behavior. 10. Explain the difference between algorithms and heuristics. Provide an example of each. - Algorithm: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a problem. - Example: Using a math formula to solve a problem - Heuristic: A heuristic is a mental shortcut or rule of thumb used to make quick judgments. - Example: Choosing a product based on the brand’s reputation  11. What is insight? Insight is the sudden realization of a solution to a problem. Describe Kohler’s Chimpanzee Study: Kohler observed that chimpanzees could suddenly solve problems, such as using tools to get out-of-reach food, demonstrating insight. 12. Explain the following obstacles to problem solving. a. Confirmation bias: Tendency to search for information that supports our beliefs and instead ignore any disagreeing evidence b. Fixation/functional fixedness: Inability to see a problem from a new perspective and limiting objects beyond their usual use c. Mental set: Tendency to approach problems in a familiar way, even if a new approach would be more efficient d. Overconfidence: Tendency to overestimate the validity of our knowledge and beliefs - Explain the sunk-cost fallacy and how it relates to overconfidence: Occurs when we continue a course of action because of previously invested resources, even when it is unwise or dangerous to do so e. Belief Perseverance: Clinging to one’s initial beliefs even after being presented with contrary evidence f. Framing/Wording Effects: How a statement or question is worded can affect decision-making and judgments i. “Nudge”: Subtle change in how choices are presented, influencing decisions without restricting options g. Priming (this term may be found in another unit): Unconscious activation of related concepts in memory, influencing thoughts and behaviors  13. How do we form judgments? a. Intuition: Effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought b. Representativeness heuristics: Judges the likelihood of something based on how well it matches to the prototype - Explain the Gambler’s Fallacy and relate it to Representativeness Heuristic: Mistaken belief that past random events affect future outcomes, linked to representativeness heuristic since they both consist of comparing prototypes c. Availability heuristics: Estimates the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory - Provide an example of Availability Heuristic: Fearing a car crash more after seeing a news report about a crash, even though the likelihood of getting in one is statistically very rare Module 2.3 Introduction to Memory 1. What is memory and how is it measured? Memory is the persistence of learning over time and is measured through recall, recognition, and relearning. 2. Describe Alzheimer’s disease and how it relates to memory: Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that progressively destroys memory and cognitive abilities. 3. Explain the following terms and how they relate to memory: a. Recall: Recall involves retrieving information without cues. b. Recognition: Recognition is identifying previously learned information from a set of choices. c. Relearning: Relearning measures how quickly information is relearned after it has been forgotten. 4. What are the three stages of memory?  - Recall - Recognition - Relearning 5. Draw and explain the three-stage multistore model of memory. Human memory has 3 different modes, and a separate control process accompanies each mode. Each memory works together to ensure that we are able to keep our memory and have it readily accessible. a. Sensory memory: Holds sensory info for a few seconds or less b. Short-term memory: Active memory that holds a few items briefly c. Long-term memory: Stores memory indefinitely, potentially for a lifetime i. Prospective memory: Involves remembering to perform future tasks d. Rehearsal: Conscious repetition of info to maintain it in working memory or to encode it into long-term memory. 6. What is working memory?  A system that holds and manipulates info temporarily for cognitive tasks 7. What is maintenance rehearsal and how would it apply to working memory? The repetition of info to keep it active in working memory 8. What is elaborative rehearsal and how would it apply to working memory? Linking new info to existing knowledge, improving long-term retention 9. Explain the following parts of working memory: a. Central executive: Coordinates working memory’s processes, focusing attention and integrating info b. Phonological loop: Handles auditory info in working memory c. Visuospatial sketchpad: Handles visual info briefly 10. How does memory work at the synaptic level? Memory formation involves changes in synaptic strength and connectivity between neurons. a. Neurogenesis: Process of forming new neurons, potentially influencing memory b. Long-term potentiation (LTP): Enhances memory storage by strengthening the synapses Module 2.4 Encoding Memories 11. Identify the different types of memory, providing examples of each. a. Explicit Memory: Memory of acts and experiences that one can consciously recall, such as recalling the capital of France i. Somatic: Stores general world knowledge, such as the definition of a car  ii. Episodic: Memory of personal experiences and specific events, such as remembering your birthday b. Implicit Memory: Retention of learned skills or conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, such as riding a bike i. Procedural Memory: A type of implicit memory involved in motor skills, such as tying your shoes c. Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space or time d. Effortful Processing: Active processing that requires attention and effort, like studying for a test e. Iconic: A brief sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting only a fraction of a second f. Echoic: A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, lasting around 3-4 seconds 12. What are the limits of short-term memory? Short-term memory can only hold around 7 items a. “Magic number 7 plus or minus two” Refers to the capacity of short-term memory to gold about 5-9 chunks of info at once 13. How can memory be improved? - explain the following strategies: Strategy: Explain what it is and how it impacts memory: Chunking: Grouping info into manageable units, and helps with storing long-term info Mnemonics / Memory aids using vivid imagery or organizational devices, such as acronyms, to Mnemonic Devices: improve recall and recognition Method of Loci: A mnemonic device that involves visualizing familiar locations to help recall info  Hierarchies Organizing info into broad concepts and subdividing it into narrower concepts to (or Categories): improve understanding and recall Spacing Effect: Distributing study sessions over time leads to better long-term retention than massed practice Massed Practice: Cramming info in one sitting, which is less effective for long-term retention Distributed Practice: Spacing learning over time enhances retention Memory Consolidation: Short-term memories become long-term, which happens during sleep Testing Effect: Retrieving info during testing improves long-term tension more than reading or reviewing the material 14. What is the difference between shallow and deep processing? - Shallow Processing Encoding on a basic level based on the structure of words - Example: Recalling a word’s appearance but not its meaning - Deep Processing: Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words, leading to better retention - Example: Remembering the definition and significance of a word 15. When processing memory, there are 3 levels, from shallowest to deepest. Explain each: a. Structural: Focus on physical features like the appearance of words b. Phonemic: Focus on sound, like rhyming c. Semantic: Focus on meaning, leading to deeper understanding and better retention Module 2.5 Storing Memories 16. What is the capacity of long-term memory?c Virtually limitless 17. Semantic memory: Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world 18. Episodic memory: Memory for specific personal events and experiences 19. How is each brain region associated with memory? a. Frontal Lobe Working memory and decision-making b. Hippocampus Critical for forming new long-term memories c. Cerebellum Involved in procedural memories and motor skills d. Basal Ganglia Involved in motor memory and habit formation e. Amygdala Causes emotional memories, especially fear-related 20. How might the brain’s development play a role in infantile amnesia? The underdeveloped hippocampus and prefrontal cortex prevent infants from forming long-term episodic memories. 21. What is the purpose of memory consolidation? To strengthen new memories and make them more resistant to interference 22. Breakdown of Memory: Implicit(procedural and conditional memories) and explicit memory(episodic and semantic memories) 23. What are flashbulb memories? Highly detailed and vivid memories of emotionally significant events, like remembering where you were during a major natural disaster Module 2.6 Retrieving Memories 24. How do external cues, internal emotions, and order of appearance affect memory?  a. Priming: Unconscious activation of related associations, like being more likely to recognize the word boss after seeing the word manager b. Context-Dependent Memory: Recall is better when you are in the same place you first learned it c. Encoding specificity principle: Cues and contexts specific to a memory will be most effective in helping recall d. State-Dependent Memory: Memory is best retrieved when in the same emotional or physiological state as when the memory was encoded e. Mood-congruent memory: The tendency to recall experiences that match one’s current mood f. Serial position effect: i. Primacy effect: Better recall for items at the front of a list ii. Recency effect: Better recall for items at the end of a list g. Metacognition Awareness and understanding of one’s thought processes h. Testing Effect Improvement of memory after retrieving info, rather than simply rereading it i. Interleaving: Mixing different topics or subjects during study sessions to improve learning 25. What is the difference between context-dependent memory and state-dependent memory? Context-dependent memory is tied to the environment, while state-dependent memory is tied to internal states like mood or physical conditions. Module 2.7 Forgetting & Other Memory Challenges 26. What is Amnesia? Loss of memory, typical due to brain injury or illness  27. Identify the difference between: - Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories after an injury - Retrograde amnesia: inability to recall past memories from before an injury 28. Draw and explain Hermann Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve: (see figure 2.7-3) As time passes on, we tend to forget around 60% of the data we first learned, and the 40% we do remember sticks with us for the rest of our lives. 29. Why do we forget: a. Encoding failure: Info never enters long-term memory b. Storage decay: Memory fades over time if not accessed c. Retrieval failure: Inability to access stored memories due to interference or other factors i. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: a temporary inability to retrieve info that feels just out of reach  d. Interference: New or existing info interferes with the retrieval of stored info e. Motivated forgetting / Repression: Basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories 30. Identify the difference between: - Proactive interference Older info disrupts the recall of newer info - Retroactive interference. Newer info disrupts the recall of older info 31. Provide an example of how to remember the difference between Proactive and retroactive interference? Remembering an old password (proactive) interferes with remembering a new one (retroactive). 32. How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? a. Reconsolidation: process of recalling a memory and potentially altering it during storage b. Misinformation Effect: when incorrect info presented after an event alters memories of the event c. Imagination inflation: imagining an event can increase confidence that it actually happened i. Elizabeth Loftus: Psychologist known for her research on the altering of human memory and the misinformation effect d. Source Amnesia: inability to recall where or how one acquired a memory  e. Deja vu: feeling that one has experienced something before, often due to familiar stimuli 33. What potential problems could arise from false memories? It can lead to incorrect beliefs or recollections, which can affect personal or academic decisions. 34. How might these concepts influence someone’s autobiographical memory? Misinformation and source amnesia can distort a person’s sense of their past, leading to inaccurate autobiographical memories 35. How can you use memory research findings to improve your content knowledge? Utilizing strategies like spaced repetition, testing, and deep processing to strengthen memory retention and understanding.