Psychology Chapter on Problem Solving

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary benefit of using chunking as a memory strategy?

It groups large amounts of information into manageable units. (correct)

It enhances immediate recall of complex information.

It relies on visual imagery for memorization.

It improves memory through repeated practice in a short time.

Which of the following describes the method of loci?

A method focused solely on phonemic processing.

A strategy involving the repetition of information.

A technique that emphasizes understanding over memorization.

A mnemonic device using familiar locations to aid memory. (correct)

What is the effect of massed practice on long-term memory retention?

It is more effective than distributed practice for retaining information.

It is less effective for long-term retention compared to distributing learning over time. (correct)

It enhances understanding and recall of information.

It leads to better long-term retention than spaced study sessions.

What is a significant characteristic of the availability heuristic?

It estimates likelihood based on memory retrieval. Signup and view all the answers

How does semantic processing compare to shallow processing?

Semantic processing involves understanding the meaning, leading to better retention than shallow processing. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory task specifically involves retrieving information without any cues?

Recall Signup and view all the answers

What does the spacing effect imply about study habits?

Distributing study sessions is more effective for long-term retention. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of maintenance rehearsal in working memory?

To keep information active in working memory Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory primarily deals with personal experiences?

Episodic memory. Signup and view all the answers

Alzheimer’s disease affects memory primarily by:

Progressively destroying memory and cognitive functions. Signup and view all the answers

Which region of the brain is primarily responsible for forming new long-term memories?

Hippocampus. Signup and view all the answers

In the three-stage multistore model of memory, which type of memory is responsible for holding sensory information for a brief period?

Sensory memory Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following strategies is NOT an example of memory consolidation?

Organizing information into hierarchies for better recall. Signup and view all the answers

Which part of working memory is responsible for focusing attention and integrating information?

Central executive Signup and view all the answers

How does elaborative rehearsal differ from maintenance rehearsal in working memory?

It involves linking new information to existing knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What methodology is primarily used to measure memory?

Recall, recognition, and relearning Signup and view all the answers

What does insight refer to in problem-solving?

A sudden realization of a solution Signup and view all the answers

Which obstacle to problem solving involves searching for information that confirms existing beliefs?

Confirmation bias Signup and view all the answers

What is fixation in the context of problem-solving?

Limiting objects to their usual use Signup and view all the answers

How does overconfidence manifest in decision-making?

By assuming one's knowledge and beliefs are more valid than they actually are Signup and view all the answers

What is the sunk-cost fallacy?

Continuing an endeavor based on previously invested resources Signup and view all the answers

What does belief perseverance refer to?

Clinging to initial beliefs after contrary evidence is presented Signup and view all the answers

What effect does framing have on decision-making?

It influences decisions based on how choices are presented Signup and view all the answers

What does the representativeness heuristic rely on?

Judging the likelihood based on similarity to a prototype Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the cerebellum in memory processing?

Involvement in procedural memories and motor skills Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of memory consolidation?

To strengthen new memories and make them more resistant to interference Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is characterized by the vivid recall of emotional events?

Flashbulb memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the state-dependent memory effect?

Better recall when in the same emotional or physiological state as when the memory was encoded Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an example of a factor affecting memory retrieval?

Age of the subject Signup and view all the answers

What does the testing effect describe?

Improving memory by recalling information rather than rereading it Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes context-dependent memory from state-dependent memory?

Context-dependent memory enhances recall based on the same physical environment Signup and view all the answers

Which memory type is involved in habit formation and motor memory?

Implicit memory Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes anterograde amnesia from retrograde amnesia?

Inability to recall memories formed after an injury for anterograde. Signup and view all the answers

What factor contributes to forgetting due to storage decay?

Memory fading over time if not accessed. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios exemplifies proactive interference?

Forgetting a friend's new address because of your earlier address. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential outcome of the misinformation effect?

Confidence in imaginary events increases, leading to false memories. Signup and view all the answers

How does the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon relate to retrieval failure?

It is an example of temporary inability to retrieve information. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by motivated forgetting, or repression?

A mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts from consciousness. Signup and view all the answers

What does Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve illustrate?

60% of learned information is forgotten quickly, but 40% remains over time. Signup and view all the answers

What principle explains the retrieval of old memories being disrupted by new information?

Retroactive interference. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Insight

Sudden realization of a solution to a problem.
Kohler's Chimpanzee Study demonstrated insight by observing chimpanzees using tools to reach out-of-reach food.

Obstacles to Problem Solving

Confirmation Bias: The tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring conflicting evidence.
Fixation/Functional Fixedness: The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, limiting objects to their usual use.
Mental Set: Approaching problems in a familiar way, even when a new approach might be more efficient.
Overconfidence: Overestimating the validity of one's knowledge and beliefs.
- Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continuing a course of action due to previously invested resources, even if it's unwise or dangerous.
Belief Perseverance: Holding onto initial beliefs even after being presented with opposing evidence.
Framing/Wording Effects: How a statement or question is worded affects decision-making and judgments.
- Nudge: Subtle changes in how choices are presented, influencing decisions without restricting options.
Priming: Unconscious activation of related concepts in memory, influencing thoughts and behaviors.

Forming Judgments

Intuition: Effortless, immediate, automatic feelings or thoughts.
Representativeness Heuristics: Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype.
- Gambler's Fallacy: The mistaken belief that past random events affect future outcomes, linked to representativeness heuristics because both involve comparing prototypes.
Availability Heuristics: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
- Example: Fearing car crashes more after seeing a news report about a crash, even though the statistical likelihood is rare.

Memory and Measurement

Memory: The persistence of learning over time.
Measured through: Recall, recognition, and relearning.
Alzheimer's Disease: Neurodegenerative disorder that progressively destroys memory and cognitive abilities.

Memory Terms

Recall: Retrieving information without cues.
Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from a set of choices.
Relearning: Measuring how quickly information is relearned after being forgotten.

Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory: Holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.
Short-Term Memory: Active memory that holds a few items briefly.
Long-Term Memory: Stores memories indefinitely, potentially for a lifetime.
- Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform future tasks.
Rehearsal: Conscious repetition of information to maintain it in working memory or to encode it into long-term memory.

Working Memory

Working Memory: A system that holds and manipulates information temporarily for cognitive tasks.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it active in working memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge, improving long-term retention.

Parts of Working Memory

Central Executive: Coordinates working memory's processes, focusing attention and integrating information.

Strategies to Improve Memory

Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units, aiding in long-term storage.
Mnemonics/Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids using vivid imagery or organizational devices, such as acronyms, to improve recall and recognition.
Method of Loci: A mnemonic device that involves visualizing familiar locations to help recall information.
Hierarchies (or Categories): Organizing information into broad concepts and subdividing them into narrower concepts, improving understanding and recall.
Spacing Effect: Distributing study sessions over time leads to better long-term retention than massed practice.
Massed Practice: Cramming information in one sitting, which is less effective for long-term retention.
Distributed Practice: Spacing learning over time enhances retention.
Memory Consolidation: Short-term memories become long-term, which happens during sleep.
Testing Effect: Retrieving information during testing improves long-term retention more than solely reading or reviewing material.
Interleaving: Mixing different topics or subjects during study sessions to improve learning.

Levels of Processing Memory

Shallow Processing: Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure of words.
- Example: Recalling a word's appearance but not its meaning.
Deep Processing: Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words, leading to better retention.
- Example: Remembering the definition and significance of a word.

Levels of Processing Memory (Details)

Structural: Focus on physical features like the appearance of words.
Phonemic: Focus on sound, like rhyming.
Semantic: Focus on meaning, leading to deeper understanding and better retention.

Long-Term Memory Capacity

The capacity of long-term memory is virtually limitless.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Semantic Memory: Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world.
Episodic Memory: Memory for specific personal events and experiences.

Brain Regions and Memory

Frontal Lobe: Working memory and decision-making.
Hippocampus: Critical for forming new long-term memories.
Cerebellum: Involved in procedural memories and motor skills.
Basal Ganglia: Involved in motor memory and habit formation.
Amygdala: Causes emotional memories, especially fear-related.

Infantile Amnesia and Brain Development

The underdeveloped hippocampus and prefrontal cortex prevent infants from forming long-term episodic memories, potentially contributing to infantile amnesia.

Memory Consolidation

Memory Consolidation: The process of strengthening new memories and making them more resistant to interference.

Breakdown of Memory

Implicit Memory (Procedural and Conditional Memories): Memories that are not consciously recalled, such as skills and habits.
Explicit Memory (Episodic and Semantic Memories): Memories that can be consciously recalled.

Flashbulb Memories

Flashbulb Memories: Highly detailed and vivid memories of emotionally significant events, like remembering where you were during a major natural disaster.

Retrieval Cues

Priming: Unconscious activation of related associations, like being more likely to recognize the word "boss" after seeing the word "manager".
Context-Dependent Memory: Recall is better when you are in the same place you first learned it.
Encoding Specificity Principle: Cues and contexts specific to a memory will be most effective in helping recall.
State-Dependent Memory: Memory is best retrieved when in the same emotional or physiological state as when the memory was encoded.
Mood-Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences that match one's current mood.
Serial Position Effect:
- Primacy Effect: Better recall for items at the front of a list.
- Recency Effect: Better recall for items at the end of a list.
Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one's thought processes.
Testing Effect: Improvement of memory after retrieving information, rather than simply rereading it.
Interleaving: Mixing different topics or subjects during study sessions to improve learning.

Context-Dependent vs. State-Dependent Memory

Context-Dependent Memory is tied to the environment, while State-Dependent Memory is tied to internal states like mood or physical conditions.

Amnesia

Amnesia: Loss of memory, typically due to brain injury or illness.

Types of Amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an injury.
Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past memories from before an injury.

Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve: Shows that as time passes, we tend to forget around 60% of learned data, and the remaining 40% sticks with us for the rest of our lives.

Reasons for Forgetting

Encoding Failure: Information never enters long-term memory.
Storage Decay: Memory fades over time if not accessed.
Retrieval Failure: Inability to access stored memories due to interference or other factors.
- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: A temporary inability to retrieve information that feels just out of reach.
Interference: New or existing information interferes with the retrieval of stored information.
Motivated Forgetting/Repression: A basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Types of Interference

Proactive Interference: Older information disrupts the recall of newer information.
Retroactive Interference: Newer information disrupts the recall of older information.

Example of Proactive and Retroactive Interference

Remembering an old password (proactive) interferes with remembering a new one (retroactive).

Memory Construction

Reconsolidation: The process of recalling a memory and potentially altering it during storage.
Misinformation Effect: When incorrect information presented after an event alters memories of the event.
Imagination Inflation: Imagining an event can increase confidence that it actually happened.

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Description

Dive into the complexities of problem solving in psychology. This quiz covers concepts such as insight, biases, and obstacles that hinder effective decision-making. Explore real-life examples and cognitive challenges that impact our thinking processes.