GST111: Sound Patterns in English Language - PDF

WEEK1 1 - Sound Patterns in English Language Synopsis and learning outcomes Introduction You have been introduced to the rudiments of the English Sound System in your various secondary schools and perhaps some post-secondary institutions you may have attended. In this week`s session, you will build...

WEEK1 1 - Sound Patterns in English Language Synopsis and learning outcomes Introduction You have been introduced to the rudiments of the English Sound System in your various secondary schools and perhaps some post-secondary institutions you may have attended. In this week`s session, you will build more on these rudiments as you are introduced to the fundamentals of Speaking based on the realization of the English sounds. You will also learn what constitutes the phonemes of English language and their combinatory possibilities in different communicative domains. In this introductory part, you will be introduced to the concepts of Phonetics and Phonology as well as the components of the English sound-- Consonants and Vowel Sounds. Apart from this, the the various classifications of consonants and vowel sounds will be learnt in this session. Week 1 learning outcomes Upon the completion of this module, you should be able to: 1. explain the notion of Speaking; 2. explain and distinguish between the concepts of phonetics and phonology; 3. classify the vowel sounds; and 4. describe the various classification of consonant sounds. The Notion of Speaking The Notion of Speaking It is no doubt that the production of the human speech evolves in the human brain and involves some brain activities. before speaking, the human brain quickly and precisely coordinates the lips, jaw, tongue and larynx (voice box)". The part of the human brain which performs this task and controls the human speech is called the ventral sensorimotor cortex, or vSMC. Researchers have discovered that the vSMC controls some part of the face and mouth (Wein, 2013). According to (Bock, 1995), speech production refers to the cognitive processes engaged in going from mind to mouth, that is, the processes transforming a nonlinguistic conceptual structure representing a communicative intention into a linguistically well-formed utterance. Speaking or speech production, is a highly complex motor act involving the finely coordinated activation of approximately 100 muscles in the respiratory, laryngeal, and oral motor systems (Guenther & Hickok, 2016). The opinions of Bock (1995), Wien (2013) and Guenther and Hickok (2016) have proven the involvement of the somato-sensory system in speech production. this explains why the organs in the pharyngeal cavity (oesophagus, glottis, larynx, voice-box, trachea), oral cavity (tongue, lips, teeth, palate, velum), and nasal cavity (nostrils) are involved in speech making. Therefore, when we speak, we produce speech sounds, hence, the conceptualization of speaking as "Speech Production". Speech involves the vocalizing of specific sounds called phonemes. Every language has specific phonemes that make sounds for that language. Speech is not limited to phonemes. Speech sounds are the vocal sounds we use to make up the words of the English language. We use them every time we say a word out loud. Saying the right sounds in the right order is what allows us to communicate with other people and understand what they are saying. 1. Speaking and the Mechanisms of Speech Speaking is simply the process of speech making. Speech is often produced by the air stream from the lungs, which goes through the trachea and the oral and nasal cavities. Naturally, speech does not start in the lungs of humans but in the human brain. The message is first of all created in the human mind. Subsequently, a representation of the message by sound sequence is formed in our minds. This is connected by a number of commands in our brain connected to the speech organs which be eventually produce the utterance (Belinchón & Igoa y Rivière). The metal activity precedes the physical production of sounds, that is the production of the sounds constituting the utterance by the air stream from the lungs, which goes through the trachea and the oral and nasal cavities. Four processes are involved in speech making-- Initiation, phonation, oro-nasal process and articulation. The initiation process is the moment when the air is expelled from the lungs. In English, speech sounds are the result of “a pulmonic egressive air stream” (Giegerich, 1992) although that is not the case in all languages (ingressive sounds). The phonation process occurs at the larynx. The larynx has two horizontal folds of tissue in the passage of air; they are the vocal folds. The gap between these folds is called the glottis. 2. References Belinchón, M., José, M. & Igoa y Á. R. (1994). Psicología del Lenguaje: Investigación y teoría, Madrid: Trotta. Giegerich, H. J. (1992). English Phonology: An introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. What Is Phonetics The term, "PHONETICS", simply describes the science or study of speech sounds and their production, transmission, and reception, and their analysis, classification, and transcription. in another word, Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols. Because we knew little about what happens in the human brain when we are speaking, the science of phonetics has concentrated on the three central components of the speech chain, which are: i. acoustic phonetics; ii. articulatory phonetics; and iii. auditory phonetics. Even though phonetics is the study of speech, the traditional method of studying speech is different from the modern approach. Traditionally, phoneticians relied on their capabilities to study sound production and perception by monitoring ears and eyes movements as well as observing other vocal organs to study pronunciation. more recently however, the study of sound production and perception have been carried out using instruments of various types to supplement the information derivable from the study of the physical sensations. The modern approach to phenetics includes an investigation of speech by means of instruments, that is, instruments are now used to visualize some aspect of the speech event, so as to provide a basis for measurements. For example, a tape recording for the purpose of repeated listening does not fall within the scope of experimental phonetics, but if the tape recording is fed into a computer and used to produce an acoustic analysis, the activity would be described as an experimental investigation." 1. Phonetics Phonetics looks at human speech from three distinct but interdependent viewpoints: Articulatory phonetics (The Production of Speech)…studies how speech sounds are produced. Auditory phonetics (The Perception of Speech)…studies the way in which humans perceive sounds. Acoustic phonetics (The Physics of Speech)…studies the physical properties of speech sounds. Articulatory Phonetics Articulatory phonetics is interested in the movement of various parts of the vocal tract during speech. The vocal tract is the passages above the larynx where air passes in the production of speech. In simpler terms, it is understanding which part of the mouth moves when we make a sound. It is basic knowledge that we use different organs that help us to produce speech sounds. Those organs are called articulators. Some of them are- lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate, nasal passage, glottal folds, lungs, and so on. These organs behave in different manners to produce speech sounds for our everyday communication. Three of the main organs and their functions are described below. The Lungs The lungs is a bladder-like spongy organ filled with air which is located on both sides of the chest. The lungs can expand or contract by ingression or egression of air. When we breathe in, the air passes through the lungs through the trachea to the oral or nasal cavity. The Larynx The larynx is located behind Adam’s apple. the vocal cords, also regarded as the voice box are a part of the larynx..  The Pharynx The pharynx contains all the active and passive articulators. It is a tube-like structure with two ends which is are regarded as the nasal and oral cavities. the entire part from the pharynx to the mouth is called the vocal tract. Auditory phonetics Auditory phonetics studies how we perceive and hear sounds and how the ear, brain and auditory nerve perceives the sounds. This branch deals with the physiological processes involved in the reception of speech. The speech sounds which are produced by the speaker get transmitted through the air such that the listeners use their auditory organ (ear) to listen to it. The brain plays the important role of assisting the listeners to comprehend the information/message sent by the speakers. 2. References Guenther, H. & Hickok, G. (2016). Neural models of motor speech controls. in G. Hikock and S. L. Small (Eds.) Neurobiology of Language. Nordquist, R. (2019). What Is Phonetics?: Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms. retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/phonetics-definition-1691622, accessed 26/12/2023. Laver, J. (2001). Linguistic Phonetics." The Handbook of Linguistics, ed. by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-Miller. Blackwell. Peter Roach, English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course, 4th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2009 Peter Roach, Phonetics. Oxford University Press, 2001.  Katrina Hayward, Experimental Phonetics: An Introduction. Routledge, 2014 The Concept of Phonology Phonology studies the system of contrastive relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the fundamental components of a language. in other words, phonology is the study of the existing sounds in a language and across different languages. Apart from this, phonology is the study of how sounds in a language are categorised, organised and used to convey meaning. In any language we can identify a specific number of regularly occurring and used sounds which are also regarded as phonemes. Phonemes are the meaningfully different sound units in a language (the smallest units of sound). For example, ‘pat’ and ‘bat’ differ in their first phoneme: the “p” and “b”. Vowels are also phonemes, so “pat” and “pet” differ by a phoneme, too (But phonemes don’t always match up with spelling!). When two words differ by a single phoneme they are known as a minimal pair. it is particularly important to learn English pronunciation by virtue of phonemes rather than letters of the alphabet; one must be aware, for example, that the word 'awesome' begins with the same vowel phoneme as that at the beginning of 'orange' and ends with the same consonant as 'slim.' awesome- /ɔ:səm/ orange- /ɔrɪndʒ/ slim- /slɪm Apart from the study of individual sounds (phonemes) and their properties, phonology also studies allophones. Allophones are variants of the same phoneme. It refers to the different ways of pronouncing a phoneme based on its environment in a word. For example, the two allophones of /l/ in “little” are actually produced slightly differently, and the second one sounds slightly deeper. These changes occur due to the different environments the sound is used in the word. Use the link below to watch a video on phonemes and allophones: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiB-sdGP_yE&t=10 1. Branches Phonology Branches of Phonology Phonology studies speech sounds in isolation as will as the relationship that exist between between those sounds. These sounds are organised into a system of contrasts, which signal differences of meaning within the language. As a result of this, there is diversity in the scope of phonology. The branches of phonology are two: i. Segmental Phonology; and ii. Suprasegmental Phonology. Segmental Phonology Segmental phonology is concerned with the smallest units of sound, called phonemes, and their distribution and patterns within words. Segmental phonology also studies the way speech can be analysed as discrete units, or segments, that constitute the basis of the sound system; and this, along with the analysis of the various phonetic features and processes which relate and differentiate these segments. within the purview of segmental phonology, two things are examined, phones and allophones. hence, we can say in simple terms that segmental phonology is concerned with the study of phoneme inventories and their features (allophones) within a specific language. the segmental inventories of English Phonology can therefore be classified as vowel and consonant. Examples: Consonant: /p/, /b/ , /t/, /d/, /m/, /n/, /h/, /ʃ/, /ŋ/ etc. Vowel: /æ/, /ɛ/, /ə/, /a/, /e/, /i:/ , /u:/ , /3:/, etc. Suprasegmental Phonology Suprasegmental phonology is concerned with the way in which phonemes are combined to form larger units of sound, called syllables. Not only this, supra- segmental phonology studies those features which extend more than one segment, such as intonation and rhythm. Suprasegmental phonology refers to intonation patterns, stress placement and rhythm in spoken language; also called prosody. These features influence the meaning and comprehension of spoken language, making them critical components of communication. Pitch Refers to the perceived frequency of a sound, playing an important role in conveying meaning through intonation and tone. In English, pitch can be used to differentiate between statements, questions, and exclamatory expressions. Stress Corresponds to the emphasis placed on a particular syllable or word when speaking. Stress can change the meaning of a word or an entire sentence, indicating the speaker's intention, attitude, or focus. Stress refers to the emphasis placed on specific syllables or words during speech, while rhythm denotes the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. Stress can change the meaning of a word or indicate the significance of a particular part of a sentence. To accurately identify stress patterns in speech, consider the following aspects:Intonation 1. Stressed syllables: These are pronounced more forcefully, with a higher pitch and longer duration than unstressed syllables. For  example, in the word "emphasis," the stress is placed on the second syllable: em-pha-sis. 2. Word stress: Identifying word stress in multi-syllable words is crucial for comprehension. The position of the stress can change a word's meaning (e.g., increase as a verb versus increase as a noun). 3. Sentence stress: Within a sentence, certain words receive more focus to convey the speaker's message or intention. This often includes content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives) and excludes functional words (articles, prepositions). The variation in pitch across a phrase or sentence that can convey different meanings or emotions. For example, a rising intonation might indicate a question, whereas a falling intonation can indicate a statement. Tone is an essential feature of suprasegmental phonetics that has a significant impact on the understanding and interpretation of speech. It refers to variations in pitch that can alter the meaning and emotional content of a word or phrase. Tones are particularly crucial in tonal languages such as Mandarin, where the meaning of a word can change dramatically based on its pitch. Although English is not a tonal language, intonation—a form of tone—plays a significant role in conveying the appropriate message and emotion. Types of Tone While the English language is not tonal, it still features varying pitch patterns that influence communication. The most common tones in the English language can be categorised as follows: o Falling Tune: A falling tone is marked by a decrease in pitch towards the end of a phrase or sentence, typically in statements or commands. o Rising Tune: Rising tones have an increasing pitch towards the end of a phrase or sentence, commonly found in yes/no questions and polite requests. o Fall-Rise: This tone features a decrease in pitch followed by an increase, indicative of uncertainty or reservation. o Rise-Fall: With an initial rise in pitch followed by a decline, this tone is often used to convey strong emotions such as surprise or disapproval. Rhythm Refers to the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech, which shapes the flow and tempo of spoken language. Rhythm allows  listeners to understand and predict the structure of speech. It is an ordered recurrent alternation of strong and weak elements in the flow of sound and silence in speech The sounds are organized into a system of contrasts, which signal differences of meaning within the language. The sounds are organized into a system of contrasts, which signal differences of meaning within the language. Consonant Sounds Consonants sounds are those sounds that are produced by setting air in motion from the lungs. Consonant sounds often represent certain speech sounds that are realised when the air passage is blocked totally or partially before it leaves the mouth, such as with the tongue, lips, or throat. Classification of Consonant Sounds Consonant sounds are classified into the following categories based on two parameters, namely: Place of articulation i. – with reference to the parts of the mouth that are used to pronounce the particular sounds. by virtue of the pronunciation organs, consonant sounds are classified into the following categories: Bilabial – the upper lip and lower lip come in complete contact with each other, e.g., /m/ Dental – the tip of the tongue touches the teeth mildly. Labio-dental – the lower lip and the upper teeth come in contact with each other. Palatal – the body of the tongue touches the hard palate. Alveolar – the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Palato-alveolar – the blade/tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, and the body of the tongue approaches the hard palate. Velar – the body of the tongue comes in contact with the soft palate (also called the velum). Glottal – the vocal cords come into contact and produce friction. Manner of articulation ii. – with reference to the movement of air from the lungs and through and out of the nose and mouth. the classification of the consonants of English based on the features related to the manner of production are presented as follows: Plosive – a sound produced by the air being blocked inside the vocal tract followed by the release of air from the mouth. Fricative – a sound produced by positioning the mouth in a particular manner so as to partially block the air coming out of the mouth. Affricate – a combination of a plosive and fricative manner, in which sound is produced by the blocking of air and finally releasing it through a partial passage.  Nasal – a sound produced when the air passes and escapes through the nose. Lateral – a sound produced by the air escaping from the mouth and sides of the tongue. Approximant – a sound produced when the tip of the tongue slightly touches the alveolar ridge, and the air escapes through the gap between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Description of the English Consonant Sounds The twenty-four (24) consonant sounds of English are described as follows: 1. Phonology Phonology studies speech sounds in isolation. Vowel Sounds 1. Vowel Sound Vowels Vowels are produced through the flow of air directed into different parts of the mouth. All vowels are voiced in English. Vowels are of three types: i. the monophthongs: those that constitute a single sound, e.g., /ɪ/ ii. the diphthongs: those that constitute two monophthong vowels, e.g., /aɪ/ iii. the triphthongs: those that constitute three monophthongs vowels, e.g, /aɪә/ Unlike the consonant sounds, all vowels are voiced sounds irrespective of the types (as illustrated above). However, single vowels which are monophthongs can be either long or short. Those monophthongs vowels that have the diacritic [:] are long vowels while those without the diacritic are short vowels. Monophthongs The English monophthong vowels are regarded as the pure vowels. They are twelve in number. These vowel sounds are called monophthong because they are pronounced as a single, unchanging sound, without any significant change in quality or length. In other words, it is a single vowel sound that remains constant throughout its pronunciation is a monophthong vowel. Based on their representation on the vowel chart, the monophthong vowels can be classified as based on the shape of the lips, height of the tongue and length of the tongue. Description of the English Monophthongs There are two types of monophthongs: long and short monophthongs. There are 5 long vowels and 7 short ones. Long  /a:/ as in calm. /u:/ as in cool. /i:/ as in leap. /3:/ as in turn. /ɔ:/ as in all. Short /ɪ/ as in sit. /ʊ/ as in boot. /e/ as in bed. /ə/ as in letter. /æ/ as in rat. /ʌ/ as in bus. /ɒ/ as in pot. Diphthongs Unlike monophthongs which constitute single sounds, diphthongs are combination of two monophthongs. Also, diphthongs are vowel sounds that involve a gradual change in quality and length, such as the "oi" sound in "boil" or the "au" sound in "caught". Diphthongs are gliding vowels, created when a speaker glides from one vowel sound glides into another. The totality of the English language diphthongs are eight. the diphthongs are illustrated as follows:  /eɪ/ as in late (/leɪt/) or gate (/geɪt/) /ɪə/ as in dear (/dɪə/) or fear (/fɪə/) /eə/ as in fair (/feə/) or care (/keə/) /ʊə/ as in sure (/ʃʊə/) or cure (/kjʊə/) /əʊ/ as in globe (/ˈgləʊb/) or show (/ʃəʊ/) /ɔɪ/ as in join (/ʤɔɪn/) or coin (/kɔɪn/) /aɪ/ as in time (/taɪm/) or rhyme (/raɪm/) /aʊ/ as in cow (/kaʊ/) or how (/haʊ/) Description of the English Diphthong Vowels The categories of the English diphthongs are falling and rising diphthongs, opening, closing, centring diphthongs, and wide and narrow diphthongs. Falling diphthongs are diphthongs that begin with a higher pitch or volume and end with a lower pitch or volume. The most common falling diphthong is /aɪ/ found in words like eye, flight and kite. Here the first vowel sound is the syllable-building sound. Rising diphthongs are the opposite of falling diphthongs. They begin with a lower pitch or volume and end with a higher pitch or volume. The rising diphthong sound is created in English when a vowel follows a semivowel. The semivowels are /j/ and /w/. There are no specific phonemic representations (e.g. /əʊ/) for rising diphthongs, as they are usually analysed as a sequence of two phonemes (e.g. /wiː/). The rising diphthong sound can be heard in words like yell (/jel/), weed (/wiːd/), and walk (/wɔːk/). Closing diphthongs have a second vowel sound that is more ‘closed’ than the first. A closed vowel is pronounced with the tongue in a much higher position in the mouth (e.g. /iː/ in see). Centring diphthongs have a second vowel that is mid-central, i.e. it is pronounced with the tongue in a neutral or central position. The mid-central vowel sound is also known as the schwa (/ə/). Any diphthong ending with the schwa sound can be considered a centring diphthong, e.g. /ɪə/ found in dear, /eə/ found in fair, and /ʊə/ found in cure. Wide diphthongs require a large tongue movement from the first vowel sound to the second vowel sound. In wide diphthongs, the sound difference between the two vowel sounds will be more prominent. WEEK 2 2 - Sentence in English Synopsis and learning outcomes In this chapter, you will develop the basic concepts that are prerequisites for the understanding of sentence in English language. We shall introduce this chapter by taking you through the description and structure of a sentence based on explanations with copious examples. MLO 1. Define a sentence and identify what sentence modification is all about. MLO 2. Expatiate on the various types of sentences both structurally and functionally. MLO 3. Apply the knowledge of the sentence structure to construct appropriate grammatical functions where applicable both in speech and writing. The meaning of a sentence It is necessary for you to get familiar with what a sentence is all about, such as definitions, types, structures, functions with relevant examples. Sentence originates from a group of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses, which are most times based on the natural quest to use language. You can as well define a sentence as a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses. A sentence starts with a capital letter when written. Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the subject of a sentence can be hidden, but the verb must be visible and present in the sentence. From the above definition, you will notice that a verb is regarded as the heart of a sentence. Let us look at some examples to illustrate the points raised. Examples: 1. Derayo must write us a letter. 2. Where is Chioma’s pen? 3. This is incredible! 4. Ade and I are working on a project. From the above examples, you should note that every sentence begins with a capital letter as well as ends with ‘.’, ‘?’, or ‘!’. You should have it in mind that in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e., a full stop ‘.’), a note of interrogation (i.e., a question mark ‘?’), or a note of exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark ‘!’. 1. Basic sentence structure From the discussion in previous sections, you should notice that every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular sentence. According to grammatical rule, sentence structure can sometimes be quite complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence would be further discussed in this section. You should know that the basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate. These parts will be further illustrated in specific terms. We should start with a subject of a sentence. The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. You should also note that the simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses. Examples of words and phrases are; “The Police Officer”…, “The dog”…, “A Student”…, “They”…, and so on. On the other side of a sentence is the predicate which expresses action within the sentence. You should note that the simple predicate contains the verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses. This is the part that carries the verb and the object. The verb in general term is the action of the sentence while the object is whoever or whatever receives the action. Examples of predicate are as follows. a. The Police Officer/”is very competent.” b. The dog/”barks till day break.” c. A student/”submitted their assignment yesterday.” d. They/ “are coming for you.” The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, which add meaning or detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or compound/complex sentences, which we shall be discussing in subsequent sections. 2. Direct object The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a noun, pronoun or noun phrase that is receiving the action of the verb. According to Kit Kittelstad, the following can best use as a guide, “subject+verb+who or what.” Let us walk through a few more direct object examples: Bola beats the boy. Al-amin loves sitting by the sea. Omolabi hugged him with all his might. Let us consider the first example, “Bola beats the boy”. Here, the subject is “Bola” and the verb is “beats”. What did Bola beat? “The boy”. This is simple enough, right? This is also applicable to other examples listed above. Types of sentence 1. Structural types of a sentence: Considering our discussions in the previous sections, it is necessary to look into the various types of sentence. Since a sentence is defined by Richard Nordquist as “a word or group of words that expresses a complete idea which includes a subject and an object. It should be of note that there are different ways in which a sentence can be categorized. As a result of this, Nordquist categorizes sentence to simple, complex, compound and compound-complex sentences. A simple sentence has a single clause (a single verb) which is independent, and it cannot take another clause. Example: 1. I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb) 2. Uthman is a great man. (One clause – one verb) 3. Sola should come with the books. (One clause – one verb) A compound sentence has two (or more) simple sentences joined by a conjunction or an appropriate punctuation mark. It is a sentence that has at least two independence clauses (a clause that has a subject and verb forming a complete thought) joined by a comma, semicolon or conjunction. Examples: 1. Bola claims to be a strong woman; it appears she is very lazy at cooking. (You will notice that the highlighted sentences are independence clauses joined with a semicolon. 2. Our house will host you, so you are most welcome. (You will notice that the highlighted sentences are independence clauses joined with a comma and a conjunction. 3. Omolabi can cope with the students, and he is capable of handling them. (You will notice that the highlighted sentences are independence clauses joined with a comma and a conjunction). A complex sentence is a sentence that contains an independent clause (or main clause and at least one dependent clause (a clause that cannot stand alone, even with a subject and a verb present). This combines independent clauses with dependent clauses to make a sentence. This means that the clauses are not equal; they use a co-ordinating conjunction that changes the rank of one or more clauses to make it less equal. Examples: 1. Aminu was happy to have won the prize, even though the prize is a pen. 2. Although he was wealthy, he lacks happiness. 3. Richard returned the computer after he noticed it was faulty. Note: You will notice that all the bold part of the above complex sentences are dependent clauses. These help to give additional knowledge to the independent clause in the sentence. A Compound-complex sentence has to do with two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. These are the most complicated sentences in English grammar. It helps us to express more complicated and longer thoughts, with more parts than other types of sentences. This is highly recommended for explaining complicated ideas or describing long chains of thought. Examples: 1. Ada doesn’t like vegetables because it makes her sick, so she doesn’t eat it. 2. The Landlord was upset because the gatekeeper was sleeping when he arrived, and he fires him. 3. Joseph went the salon; Moses went to the field, while Mary went to the market. 2. Functional Types of Sentences Functionally, there are four types of sentences in English language. These are categorised on the basis of the meaning that they convey (purpose). These are: declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and imperative. 1. Declarative sentence are sentences that make a statement or give information about an action with a full-stop or period. The usual arrangement of a declarative sentence is subject and verb. This could be positive or negative. Examples: i. The boy is a perfectionist. ii. The three men are living together. iii. Lion is the king of the jungle. 1. Interrogative sentence is a type of sentences that come as a question. As the name implies, it is best used when asking questions. This means that, the sentence ends with a question mark, unlike the other types of a sentence. This type of sentence is marked by inversion of the subject and predicate, meaning that the first verb in a verb phrase appears before the subject. Examples are as follow: i. Is the boy a perfectionist? ii. Do you live around here? iii. How well do you understand GNS 101? In the above examples of interrogative sentences, you will notice that each sentence is asking a certain question, as well as reordering the words of its declarative counterpart. You can see this in the first example under interrogative sentence; The boy is a perfectionist, (declarative). 1. Imperative sentence is a type of sentences that give orders or command, which usually end with a full stop and sometimes with an exclamation mark. This is mostly used in issuing an instruction, make a request or offer advice. i. Leave him alone! ii. You should get this done before evening. iii. Wait for Dr. Haruna. iv. Please be attentive. In the above examples, you will notice that each sentence is issuing a command. This is how an imperative sentence functions. 1. Exclamatory sentences show strong emotions such as excitement, surprise, happiness, sadness, and anger, which end with exclamation mark (!). Examples: i. I got an A in GNS 101! ii. My God is great! iii. It feels great to be here! In the above examples, you will notice that each sentence expresses a certain concern of emotional state. This is how an exclamatory sentence functions. Direct and indirect speech 1. Introduction As a Speaker of English you should have two different ways of reporting words of another person: through a direct quote or indirect quote, otherwise known as direct speech and indirect speech. A direct speech contains the exact words spoken by the other person, while indirect speech expresses the content of what was said, but not the speaker’s exact words. As such, both direct and indirect speeches are staple of everyday communicative life that speakers of language use to illuminate reality to suit their intents and purposes. 2. Direct Speech What is direct speech? Direct speech is the reporting of the exact words which someone else has spoken. Put differently, it is the actual words or the quote of a speaker’s or writer’s words or sentences. When we write such words or sentences, we enclose or set off the quoted words in quotation marks or inverted commas. This means that there is no addition or subtraction in the original words of the speaker, e.g. “I shall probably go to Lapai next week”, said the lecturer. In the above example, the inverted commas are used to enclose the actual word spoken by the lecturer followed by a comma. The sentence is therefore a direct speech. It is easy to recognise direct speech in a written passage because the actual spoken words are enclosed in inverted commas. 2.1. The rules of direct speech You should carefully study the following rules when dealing with Direct speech: 1. After the subject (speaker) and the verb, put a comma 2. Put quotation marks before you start writing the first word of the quoted speech 3. Write in capital letter the first letter of the first word of the quoted speech 4. Put the appropriate punctuation marks at the end of the speech, e.g. a full stop, a question mark, or an exclamation mark 5. Finally, close the speech with quotation marks 2.2. Indirect Speech Often times however, we give an account of a conversation, or speech after it has been said and reports such a speech in our own way, i.e. we alter the speech slightly so that we are not using words of the speaker though we are trying to convey as nearly as possible the correct sense that was said. When this is done, we engage in second hand or indirect reporting known as indirect or reported speech. In other words, indirect speech or reported speech is the paraphrasing of an utterance without quoting verbatim the actual words to convey, as closely a s possible. It is to be noted that we do not use inverted commas (No quotation marks in indirect speech). Thus, our sentence above will become: The lecturer said that he would probably go to Lapai the following week. 2.3. The rules of indirect speech In reported speech or indirect speech, the following rules must be observed: After mentioning the speaker (subject) and the verb, the reported speech is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’ where appropriate. Make sure that you do not distort or alter the speaker’s speech or intended meaning. If you summarise the message, which is sometimes necessary, try to avoid distortion and misplacement of remarks. Take care not to add to a speaker’s message or subtract from it. References Awolola, R. S. A. (2004). English language and communication skills. Ilorin: Mercy Prints Akere, F. (2012). English across disciplines. Lagos: Punmark press Charles, O. (2004). Problems areas in English grammar and usage. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi Publishers Israel, M. (1996). The way construction grow. In: A. Goldberg, (ed.), 217-230. Kay, P. & Charles J.F. (1999). Grammatical constructions and linguistic generalizations: The ‘What’s X doing Y’ construction. Language 75: 1-33. Kudu, A. M. (2001). Grammar of English in current usage. Minna: Kentak Modern prints Leech, G.& Svartvuck, J.S. (1980). A communicative grammar of English. London: Longman press WEEK3 3 - Grammar and Usage Synopsis and Learning Outcomes Introduction “Why do I have to be bothered with intolerable wrestle with words, their shapes and the rules that govern their usage at the structural level?” These and many more are the questions that may be bulging your mind as you go through the contents of this week`s lecture. You have been introduced to the rudiments of English grammar in your various secondary schools and perhaps some post-secondary institutions you may have attended. In this week`s session, you will build more on these rudiments as you are introduced to the fundamentals of English grammar in terms of the rules that guide the shapes of words and their combinatory possibilities in different communicative domains. In this introductory part, you will be introduced to the notion of grammar, the basis of grammar, terms and concepts in English grammar, the importance of grammar in general communication and the structure of the English sentence. Week 1 learning outcomes: Upon the completion of this module, you should be able to: 1. explain the notion of grammar; 2. explain the importance of grammar in general communication; 3. explain the basic concepts in English grammar; and 4. describe the structure of the English sentence. The Notion of Grammar Grammar 1. Introduction Almost everybody knows the role of grammar in the teaching and learning of a language but almost nobody can describe or define it with some degree of exactitude. This is owing to the fact that the concept may mean different things to different people. In this module, you are going to be introduced to the meaning of grammar from two basic approaches: Modern English Approach and Systemic Functional Approach. In simple terms, grammar is the study of the relationship between words in a sentence. Jombadi (2015, p. 17) opines that grammar refers to the “systematic rules about how a language should be written or spoken”. Grammar may also be described as the rules and principles that govern the construction of sentences. Grammar is a systematic study of scientific method which provides us information and guidance necessary to learn a language (Murthy 2007, p.2) Murthy observes further that the science of grammar teaches us how a language is spoken and written correctly and effectively. It can, therefore, be said that grammar is primarily concerned with the formation and classification of words and sentences and practical significance in daily life. The rules of grammar are many and complex. They include the concept of plurality and singularity in nouns and verbs, the rules concerning agreement of sentence elements, rules concerning the use of tenses and many more. These rules of grammar are many and complex. For instance, there are those between words that form phrases, those between phrases that form clauses or sentences and those between clauses that form sentences. 2. Scope of Grammar The scope of grammar is very wide. For example, it describes all the factors that affect words in sentence contexts, e.g.: (a) gender, number and case in nouns; (b) voice, mood, tense and aspect in verbs and sentences; (c) those of complementation between verbs and nouns or adjectives; (d) those of modification between adjectives and nouns as well as between adverbs and verbs; (e) those of determination between determiners and nouns as well as government between prepositions and noun phrases; (f) those of sentence embedding and other sentence processes; and, (g) the aspects of usage and the expression of meaning in grammatical structures. (Egbe, 2000, p. 4) 3. Types of Grammar Although the aim of this module is not to bore you with the types of grammars across languages, a brief mention of their typologies is, however, necessary at this point to enable you get greater insight to some grammatical concepts that you will be introduced to later in this module and several other modules in this course. 1. Traditional/ Modern Grammar This grammar is highly prescriptive and notional. It gives names to sentence constituents, sets up parts of speech and describes how the various units relate to one another in the sentence. Modern English grammar (MEG) has, however, improved some of the deficiencies of traditional grammar for pedagogical convenience. 1. Structural Grammar This grammar is different from both traditional and modern grammar in its approach by eliminating meaning from grammatical descriptions. It uses the notion of contrast and minimal pair to establish phonemes, substitution and contrast to identify morphemes and slots in sentence frames to set up the class of every word. 1. Generative Grammar This grammar looks at sentence structure from a different point of view. It seeks to generate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language. It therefore, applies a finite set of phrase-structure rules to generate an infinite set of sentences. This grammar is highly mentalistic (Egbe 2000, pp. 17-18). 1. Systemic Functional Grammar As the name implies, this grammar is functional. It conceives of language of a system of choices which language users could draw to service in different communicative situations. This grammar sees language as behaviour and matching form to function and the incorporation contextual evidence (Melrose, 1995 p. 24). This model of grammar consider language as network of choices. In its functional potential, language is regarded as a social behaviour. Terms and Concepts in English Grammar Terms and Concepts in English Grammar In this section you will be introduced as far as possible to a simple and clear discussion of the major terms and concepts that are frequently deployed to use in English grammar.. For all practical purposes, these terms and concepts refer to grammatical processes and operations in the English language. They signal various relationships that obtain among the units and tools for grammatical analysis. Essentially, they will enhance our understanding of the grammatical organisation of English sentences (Egbe 2000, p.33). Because these grammatical terms and concepts are very complex, you will be provided with only a short but informative description of each term and concept while leaving out the complexities and controversies that may surround them. Technical terms and concepts are significant in grammar but there are quite a number that we may not be able to cover in this section. We shall only focus on the major and significant ones especially those that are crucial for the description and analysis of the grammar required for this level of learning. 1. Terms and Concepts in English Grammar In this section you will be introduced as far as possible to a simple and clear discussion of the major terms and concepts that are frequently deployed to use in English grammar.. For all practical purposes, these terms and concepts refer to grammatical processes and operations in the English language. They signal various relationships that obtain among the units and tools for grammatical analysis. Essentially, they will enhance our understanding of the grammatical organisation of English sentences (Egbe 2000, p.33). Because these grammatical terms and concepts are very complex, you will be provided with only a short but informative description of each term and concept while leaving out the complexities and controversies that may surround them. Technical terms and concepts are significant in grammar but there are quite a number that we may not be able to cover in this section. We shall only focus on the major and significant ones especially those that are crucial for the description and analysis of the grammar required for this level of learning. 1.1. Concepts and terms relating to nouns and pronouns Concepts and terms relating to nouns and pronouns There are quite a number of terms and concepts associated with nouns and pronouns which relates fundamentally to their forms and functions within sentence contexts. These terms and concepts include: 1. 1. Gender This refers to the state of being masculine, feminine or neutral. In English language, it relates to such distinctions as: (i) Personal and Non-personal, and, (ii) Sex When items are marked as ‘personal’, they are used to refer to human beings only. When they are non- personal, they are used for other creatures or objects. For example: Fig. 1 ITEM PERSONAL NON-PERSONAL i Interr.Pro. who, whom, whose, which, what ii Rel.Pro. who, that which, that As for sex distinction, such items as: MALE FEMALE Fig. 2 I He/him/his She/her Ii Himself herself Example sentences: (a) The man at times says what he is not sure about. (b) Mary took her children to school last week. ACTIVITY: 1. Pick a prose passage from any text of your choice and make a list of twenty names and indicate their gender. 1. Construct one sentence with each of the names listed. Number (A) Forms Number refers to the idea of one (singular number) or more than one (plural number). In English, both nouns and verbs, by and large, change their forms to signal number, very much unlike the indigenous languages which change the forms of their nouns only to reflect number. For example: Fig. 3 SINGULAR PLURAL i Girl Girls ii bottle bottles iii kiss kisses iv wish wishes v knife knives vi seraph seraphim vii millennium millennia viii index indices ix complexity complexities x locus loci xi stadium stadia xii cargo cargoes xiii I we xiv He/she/it they They add either the plural morpheme -s(as in (i) and (ii) or -es (as in (iii) and (iv) to form their plurals. Those borrowed from other languages add such plural morphemes as reflect their origins. One pronoun and some nouns however do not change their forms for number (e.g.: you, sheep), some change their forms by adding -en (e.g. ox - oxen), some form their plurals by mutation (e.g.: man - men), some have plural forms (e.g.: mumps, measles) and some have plural meanings only (e.g. people). (B) Count and Non-count Generally, nouns like those in the table above (which have both singular and plural numbers) are count. Others, which have only the singular number (e.g.: cowardice, furniture), are non-count. ACTIVITY: Watch any animal movie or documentary of your choice and write the plural forms of the names of any ten animals you have seen in the movie or documentary. 1. 3. Case This is a change in the form of a word as a result of its relationship with other words in the sentence. In English, nouns, pronouns and possessive adjectives show cases as follows: Fig. 4 Subject Object Genitive i He Him His ii She her her iii I me my iv We us our v Ayo Ayo Ayo’s vi Jamal Jamal Jamal’s Example sentences: (a) She brought out her new dresses. 1. GEN. OBJ. (b) Jamal has taken Miss Ayo’s telephone number. SUB. GEN. OBJ. (c) I advised him to be patient. SUB. OBJ. (d) He sent his child here yesterday. 1. GEN. OBJ. The element in the sentence that makes words adopt some cases are discussed below. 1. 4. Subject and Object cases (A) Subject: This is the noun, noun phrase or pronoun that relates directly to the verb (e.g.: carrying out the action of the verb or being involved in a state portrayed by the verb) in the sentence. Such a noun or pronoun is said to be in the subject or nominative case. (B) Object: This is a noun, pronoun or phrase to which the action of the verb has been done. This is the direct object. For the indirect object, it is the result of the action that is in question. Example sentences: (a) I didn’t touch the table. SUB. VERB OBJ. (b) The government gave the school some books. 1. VERB INDIR.OBJ DIR. OBJ. Thus, the books suffers the action giving and the school is the beneficiary of the action. A pronoun, noun or noun phrase can also be the Object or Complement of a preposition in a prepositional phrase. Verbs and prepositions thus enable nouns and pronouns to be in subject and object cases. Fig. 5 PREPOSITION OBJECT/COMPLEMENT i to me ii with Tomi iii in the bathroom Example sentences: (c) He threw the ball to me. (d) We spoke with Tomi before. (e) I saw her in the bathroom. (Egbe, 2000, p.41). These objects of verbs and prepositions are in the objective or accusative case. The complement of a preposition is also in the same case but complement of a linking verb is not always in the objective case as in indicated in the example sentences below. (i)it was she that stole the book. (ii) it they who won the prize. In the examples above, both she and they are in the subjective case as it which is the subject also in the nominative case. ACTIVITY: 1. Construct ten sentences using prepositions and explain how the preposition in each sentence influenced the case of the nouns they govern. 2. Write ten sentences that contain nouns used in both subjective and objective cases. 1. 5. Determination The determiner system is an important concept in grammatical analysis. This is because it borders on the construction of structures such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. Determiners provide more information about nouns, which they often co-occur with. For instance, they could provide information about definiteness, number, possession, etc. They also identify or point to the nouns or entities they refer to. They following are the categories of determiners: 1. Articles: a/an (indefinite articles), the (definite article) 2. Numerals: five, seventh, eighth, etc. 3. Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those 4. Indefinite adjectives: a few, a little, some, etc. 5. Possessive adjectives: her, our, his, my, etc. ACTIVITY: 1. Write six examples of indefinite adjectives or pronouns and construct two sentences with each of them. 2. Pick any news story from any newspaper of your choice and identify and correct the wrong use of determiners identified in the story. 6. Antecedent This is a word or phrase to which another word, often a pronoun, refers to in a sentence. The antecedents come before the words that refer to them. Consider the following example: 1. The boys eat whatever they like. In the above example, the phrase ‘the boys’ is an antecedent of the pronoun ‘they’. ‘They’, which is a personal pronoun, still points to ‘the boys’. You must note that number of an antecedent must agree with that of the word that refers to it. As seen in the above-stated example, ‘the boys’ and ‘they’ are plural. Therefore, they agree. If the antecedent were singular, the appropriate pronoun would be a singular one. 7. Person This refers to the perspective of the person speaking (1st person), the person spoken to (2nd person) or the person/thing spoken about (3rd Person). Each of these persons can be in the subjective or object case. Also, they could also be in the singular or plural forms, as indicated in Fig. 6 below. Fig. 6 PERSON Singular Plural ↓ 1st (Subjective) I we (Objective) me us 2nd (Subjective) you you (Objective) you you 3rd (Subjective) he, she, it they (Objective) him, her, it them 1.2. The structure of the English Sentence In this section, you will be introduced to the structure of the English sentence. Your knowledge of the structure of sentences will enable you do in-depth grammatical analysis different sentences no matter how complex. Your knowledge of the various constituents of a sentence from both Modern Grammar and Systemic Functional Grammar perspectives will enable you analyse the units of a sentence more accurately. The structure of a sentence bothers on how grammatical units are arranged in accordance with the grammatical rules of the language to form phrases and sentences. It is related to how language users fuses together the units to form individual sentences and their parts. For you to have a fair mastery of the structure of a sentence, you must come to terms with the constituent parts and the constituents of a sentence. This, from Modern English Grammar perspective, is illustrated as S + V + O + C +A and S + P + C+A from Systemic Functional Grammar perspective. From Modern Grammar perspective, we may have the following examples: 1) Tola came to school yesterday. S V P O C 2) The boy deceived the mum cleverly. S V O A From Systemic Functional Grammar’s perspective however, we may have the following structural elements of a sentence. 1) She clutched Wilhelmina. S P C 2) Kunle was brave. S P C 3) I took Joke by the hair. S P C Glossary Printer-friendly version Antecedent: A word or expression to which another word refers in a sentence. Aspect: The forms that a verb can take to either show the continuity or completion of an event in an utterance. Generative grammar: A type of grammar that uses finite type of rules to generate infinite sets of sentences. Grammar: A notion in English that explains the principles and rules that govern the construction of meaningful expressions. Mood: The forms that a verb can take in order to perform different functions in sentences. Operator: The first auxiliary verb in a string of verbs. Systemic Functional Grammar: A type of Grammar that conceives of language not only as a social phenomenon, functional, but also as meaning in choice. Tense: A deitic category that is simultaneous with time of utterance. Traditional grammar: A type of grammar that is highly prescriptive and notional. Voice: The forms that a verb takes to indicate whether the subject of sentence performs an action or an action performed towards it. References Daniel IEgbe. (2000). Essential English grammar and syntactic analysis. Panaf Publishing. Jombadi, A. (2015). Basic studies in English. Olad Publishers. Melrose, R. (1995). The communicative syllabus (2nd ed.). Pinter. Murthy, J. D. (2007). Contemporary English grammar (B. Lawrence, Ed.). Book Master. WEEK4 4 - English Word Classes Word Classes 1. Word Classes WORD CLASSES/PARTS OF SPEECH Just as the human body has parts, and each part plays a particular role for the proper functioning of the body as q whole, every word in English Language falls into a particular group or class; and each word has a particular function to perform in every given sentence. The knowledge of the parts of speech is fundamental to all learners who may wish to understand how sentences are constructed to convey meaning. A learner who has not mastered parts of speech- also word classes- and their various functions can be likened to an engineer who does not know much about the components of the engine, and therefore, cannot work well on the engine. The word classes discussed are Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Propositions and Conjunctions. This refers to the class the words of a language belongs according to the work that they do in sentences. In a sentence, some words name, some describe, some modify, and others join other words or structures together, while others show relationship between words. There are two types of word classes. They are the open or major word class and the closed or minor word class. We can add new words or experiences to the open system but this is not possible with the closed system. Examples of the open class are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, articles and interjection belong to the closed class system as illustrated below. WORD CLASSES OPEN CLASS nouns verbs adjectives adverbs CLOSED CLASS pronouns preposition conjunction determiner interjection Types of Word Classes/Parts of Speech (Open Class) Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Propositions Conjunctions. 1. Nouns Nouns: A noun is a naming word. It names people, places or things. Nouns are also labels for person or things. Words are classified as nouns based on their functions and their derivational suffixes in sentences instead of their meaning. We also recognize words as nouns based on the words that signal them in sentences. e.g. the a My an Types of nouns. (i) Proper nouns: These types of nouns refer to specific people and places and are usually written with an initial capital letter. They do not appear after the determiner ‘a’ and ‘the’. Examples. Stephen Mary Abubakar Africa Nigeria Lagos (ii) Common nouns: common nouns classify things into types of general categories. Examples Car Dog Flower Chair Road Market (iii) Concrete nouns: concrete nouns refer to physical things like people, objects and places, things that can be observed and measured. They may be singular or plural. Examples Guitar Table Clothes Door Box Bag (iv) Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns refer to ideas, processes, occasions, times and qualities; they cannot be touched or seen. Examples Happiness Weak Birth Confinement Joy Love (v) Count nouns: count nouns are distinguished in terms of singular and plural. They take plural inflections or markers and obey the rule of number. Changing nouns to plural forms Nouns ending in –y form their plurals by changing the –y into –ies e.g story stories penny pennies lorry lorries 2. Nouns ending in -o, -s, -sh, -tch and x often form their plurals by adding –es e.g mistress mistresses box boxes flash flashes watch watches 3. Nouns ending in –f (except –ff) or –fe change to –ves in the plural e.g. hoof hoves (sometimes hoofs) life lives wife lives knife knives 4. Irregular nouns change a vowel or use a suffix different from –s e.g. mouse mice tooth teeth ox oxen child children 5. Some nouns have the same form for both singular and plural e.g. sheep sheep fish fish (sometimes fishes) water water sand sand (vi) Non-count nouns: Non- count nouns refer to substances and qualities that cannot be distinguished in terms of singular and plural. They have no plural forms. They may be concrete or abstract. Examples silver silver information information hockey hockey traffic traffic (vii) Collective nouns: Collective nouns refer to groups of people, animals or things. Examples A crowd of people A hive of bees A galaxy of stars A fleet of cars Noun derivational suffixes ment accomplish + ment accomplishment ance accept + ance acceptance al arrive + al arrival ant assist + ant assistant y deliver + y delivery ure depart + ure departure or conduct + or conductor er teach + er teacher ion accumulate + ion accumulation The possessive case. Both regular and irregular singular and plural nouns are used in sentences to show possession E.g (a) add ’s to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in –s: A child’s voice Russia's exports The people’s choice The horse’s mouth The government’s decision Men’s clothes (b) add the apostrophe alone (’) with plural nouns ending in –s: A girls’ school The eagles’ nest The smiths’ car (c) Nouns ending in ‘s’ take the apostrophe alone: Mr. Jones’s / Jones’s house Yeats’s / Yeats’ poems Charles’s /Charles discovery (d) In compound nouns and titles the last word takes the ’s: my brother-in-law’s guitar Henry the Eight’s wives (e) In compound plural nouns, the apostrophe comes after the ‘s in the last noun element. e.g. my sister-in-laws’ apartment my brother-in-laws’ house Read through the extract below and list all the nouns in it. EXERCISE: CHRISTMAS EVE Something dead strange has happened to christmas. It’s just not the same as it used to be when I was a kid. In fact I’ve never really got over the trauma of finding out that my parents had been lying to me annually about the existence of Santa Claus. Assignment: write the plural forms of the following nouns. 1. baby 11.man 2. child 12.photo 3. country 13.piano 4. aircraft 14. sheep 5. foot 15. shelf 6. key 16. storey 7. kilo 17. thief 8. woman 18. story 9. leaf 19. tooth 10. loaf 20 wife Gender Gender has to do with sex of animals and human beings. There are three genders associated with nouns. These are; 1. Masculine gender associated with the male sex for both human beings and animals. 2. Feminine gender associated with female sex for both animals and human beings. 3. Neuter gender associated with inanimate things. Examples: masculine feminine 1. boy girl 2. bridegroom bride 3. husband wife 4. widower widow 5. brother sister 6. father mother 7. nephew niece 8. son daughter 9. uncle aunt 10. actor actress 11. king queen 12. waiter waitress 2. Verbs The verb is usually seen as the nucleus of the English clause and sentence. Verbs usually bear the weight of tense, person and number in the sentence and these three features constitute the markers of agreement in the clause and sentence. There are two types of verbs – Lexical and Auxiliary. Examples of lexical verbs are talk, play, classify, sweep, etc. Two classifications of auxiliary verbs are identified in English: Primary (do, have, be) and Modal (can, may, shall, will; could, might, should, would; must, ought to, used to, need, dare). The lexical verbs are open, while the modal auxiliaries are closed system verbs.  1. Lexical Verbs There are five basic verb forms of the lexical verbs: 1. Base (V): walk, sing, cut. 2. –s forms (3rd Person singular present) (V -s): walks, sings, cuts 3. Past (V –ed1): walked, sang, cut 4. –ing Participle (present participle) V –ing: walking, singing, cutting 5. –ed Participle (past participle) V –ed2: walked, sung, cut Exercise 1 1. Identify the kinds of verbs represented by each of the three examples of verbs in the discussion on the verb forms. 2. Give three representative examples of your own. 1. Regular and Irregular Verbs Another way of classifying verbs with respect to morphology is the difference between regular and irregular verbs. As can be seen in the previous section on verb forms, the structure and spelling of the examples in numbers 3 and 5 (V-ed 1 & 2) indicate the structural difference in the three words used to illustrate the forms of verbs. V BASE kick love fry V –ing -ING PARTICIPLE kicking loving frying V–s -S FORM kicks loves fries V -ed PAST/-ED PARTICIPLE kicked loved fried These verbs are regular because it is possible to predict their other forms with the knowledge of their base. Most English verbs are in this category. Derived verbs from other classes like nouns also fall into this category – even if they are irregular words in their primary classes. For example, ‘man’ is an irregular noun. However, it becomes ‘manned’ as a V –ed form of a derived verb. In spite of the possibility of predicting the forms of regular verbs, we should note that each regular verb must still be learned individually because of other spelling peculiarities and rules that inform the inflection of verbs in English; e.g. doubling of root consonants at the point of affixation:  1. Permit permitting permitted Another instance is the treatment of –y: 1. lay/lays laid hurry/hurries hurried lie/lies lying It can be seen in each of the three examples above that –y is treated differently. 1. The dropping of –e is another manifestation of inconsistency in the spelling of regular verbs in English. save saving saved dye dyeing dyed The rule of –e dropping is observed in the case of ‘save’ but not so with ‘dye’ as seen in this example. Exercise 2 Identify other instances of inconsistencies in the application of the three spelling rules discussed above. Irregular Verbs in English have a varying number of distinct forms which make them to be problematic for even L1 users of English. Those using the language as a second language must therefore take pains to learn each irregular form on its own. Attempt to describe the trend noticed in the following set of irregular verbs: *Indicate the BASE (V) V –ed1 V –ed2 classification e.g. all alike Put put put All different Write wrote written Come came come Sing sang sung Spell spelt spelt Spoil spoilt spoilt go went gone Sleep slept Slept Cut cut Cut  Catch caught caught Bind bound bound Read read Read Saw sawed Sawn Slide slid Slid 1. The Auxiliary Verbs in English (do, have, be) also present an interesting picture. They can function as lexical verbs especially when they occur in the sentence as the only verb form. For instance, in: I have the book. Have is a lexical verb because it is the only verb in the sentence. Compare with this sentence: The boys have written the essay. The words in italics are verbs; have is the auxiliary, while written is the lexical verb. Let us briefly discuss them in turns. 1. Have Base have -s form has Past had -ing form having -ed participle had (but it occurs only as lexical verb) 1. Be The base form of this verb is be and it has eight different forms: 1. 1st person singular present am: I am going home. 2. 3 person singular present rd is: She is my sister. 3. 2nd, 1st and 3rd persons plural present are: You/We/They are invited. 4. 1st and 3rd person singular past was: I/She was invited. 5. 2 person, 1 and 3 person plural past nd st rd were: You/We/They were invited. 6. –ing form being: He is being foolish. 7. –ed participle been: I/They/You/ have been invited. These eight forms are to be mastered and should not be misused or misrepresented in our sentences.  1. Modal Auxiliaries The modal auxiliaries of English are: can/could; may/might; shall/should; will/would; must; ought to; used to; need and dare. An informed combination of auxiliaries and main verbs in English can produce over a hundred different sentences. It is therefore expedient for a second language user of English to master the auxiliary verbs and their uses. 1. Finite and Non-Finite Verbs We can identify four features to differentiate between finite and non-finite verbs. 1. Finite verbs are marked for tense; e.g. He plays/played football in Lagos. 1. Finite verb occurs as the verb element of a clause. In this case there is always an indication of agreement/concord between the subject and the finite verb. I am coming. You/We/ They are coming. He/She/It is coming. However, if there is a modal auxiliary between the subject and the main verb, there is no concord because the modal auxiliary bears the weight of agreement; e.g. I/you/she/we/they will play football in Lagos. 1. Finite verb phrases have mood. Mood refers to the disposition or attitude of the speaker to the proposition expressed in the sentence, especially as it affects the addressee. There are three main moods in English: declarative (indicative/ statement of facts), imperative (expressing commands) and interrogative (questions). A non-finite verb does not express moods. 2. The non-finite forms are infinite (to play), the –ing participle (playing), the –ed participle (played), and the bare infinitive – it has the to-infinitive as its underlying structure (have). Finite Non-finite He plays very well. To play football in London is my ambition. He is playing football. Playing football in London is fashionable. He had been playing football before. Having been playing football in London, he was given a free passage. Let us have him play football. (This form has special uses as seen in the example.) As can be noticed from the examples, the clauses with only non-finite verb phrases cannot stand alone, because the absence of the finite verb deprives them of complete senses. Let us avoid constructing sentences that do not have finite verbs; e.g. *Having cleaned the room does not make a complete sense. This kind of construction is called a non- finite clause and it is a subordinate clause. It needs a finite clause to make sense; e.g. Having cleaned the room, Bisi spread the mat on the floor. The underlined portion is a finite clause. E. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs The last classes of verbs to be discussed in this chapter are the transitive and intransitive verbs. Transitive verbs transfer action from the actor to the direct object; e.g. verbs such as kick, sweep, build, play, write, etc. Ade kicked the ball. In this sentence, we recognise that the actor Ade, performed an action on the ball, which is the direct object. Intransitive verbs do not transfer action in this way; i.e. these verbs do not need a direct object to realise their meanings and make complete sense. Examples are: sleep, dance, arrive, etc. Davido danced yesterday. Some other verbs can take more than one object; they are called ditransitive verbs, e.g. give. Ade gave Sammy the book. Both Sammy and the book are objects of the verb gave. While the book is the direct object, Sammy is the indirect object. Exercise 1. Find five examples each for the transitive and intransitive verbs in English. 2. Find two more examples of ditransitive verbs and use them in correct sentences. 3. Adjectives An adjective is a word that qualifies a noun or a pronoun. It provides extra information about nouns by giving details of physical qualities like colour and shape, and psychological qualities like emotions, and by providing evaluative judgments. E.g. Some green leaves A heavy sack A funny film A good story A foolish excuse CHARACTERISTICS OF ADJECTIVES (i) Position in relation to nouns. Adjective can come before nouns (attributive adjectives) and after verbs (predicative adjectives) e.g. The large balloon (attributive). A pure white stallion (attributive). The balloon is large (predicative). The essay is very good (predicative). (ii) Grading: Adjectives can be graded in terms of positive/absolute (base), comparative (er, ier) and superlative (est, iest) degrees so that nouns can be compared. E.g. A big car. A bigger car The bigger car. The biggest car. We form the comparative and superlative degrees of polysyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives by using ‘more’ and ‘most’ before the adjectives. E.g. Fortunate more fortunate most fortunate Grateful more grateful most grateful Diligent more diligent most diligent Careful Serious Peaceful Prayerful Attentive (iii) Irregularity: Some adjectives are irregular as in the following patterns. Bad worse worst Good better best Little Order of Adjectives When we use two or more adjectives together before a noun, we must put them in a certain order. Several variations are possible but a fairly usual order is: Possessive adjectives such as (my, your, his) and this, that, those, these come first. Adjectives of size e.g. big, small, large, wide etc. come next. Adjectives of size are followed by general description adjectives e.g. dirty, smart, ugly, beautiful, agile etc. The Adjectives of shape follow e.g. round, square, oval etc. After these adjectives, we have the adjectives of age e.g. Old, young, new etc. The next adjectives are the adjectives of colour. E.g. blue, green, yellow, white etc. This is followed by the adjectives of material. E.g. steel, wooden etc. This is followed by the adjectives of origin. E.g. Austrian, Nigerian, French, English etc. These adjectives are followed by the adjectives of purpose. E.g. dining, reading etc. Types of Adjectives There are different kinds of adjectives in English. Some of them include: Demonstrative adjectives: These types of adjectives point to the objects they qualify in sentences. They include words like; that, this, these those etc. Adjectives of quality: These types of adjectives show the quality of a thing. Some examples include such words as dry, good, happy, small etc. Distributive adjectives: These types of adjectives distributive qualities to certain things or objects. They include such words as each, every, either, neither etc. Quantitative adjectives: These types of adjectives quantify objectives or things. Some common examples are; Some, any, many, much, little, few, etc. Interrogative adjectives: These types of adjectives are used interrogatively. They include such words as which, what, whose, who, etc. Possessive adjectives: These types of adjectives show possession. Some common examples are; my, your, his, its, our, their etc. Some special uses of adjectives In English, adjectives of quality have the same form in the singular , and plural and for all genders. Some notable examples are; a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls, a good film, good films etc.  When two or more adjectives follow a verb, we put and before the last one. Example: The day was cold, wet and windy. We can put but if there is contrast of ideas. Example: The bag was small but heavy When two or more adjectives of colour precede a noun, we put and before the last one, but we don`t need and when there is only one adjective of colour e.g. A blue and brown bag but a big brown bag. We can use both present and past participles as adjectives as in the following examples: The play was boring (adj.), The audience was bored(verb)The noise was terrifying (adj.), every one was terrified ( verb) 4. Adverbs An adverb is a word that either modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb like itself. It is used to show how, where, when, how often or to what extent an action takes place. This assertion is indicated in the sentences below: I am dreadfully tired. (Here, the adverb modifies the adjective tired) Don`t speak so slowly. (In the second example, the adverb so modifies the adverb slowly). He is here. (In the last example, the adverb here modifies the verb is). Adverbs are generally mobile, this implies that they can come at the beginning, middle and final positions of sentences e.g Slowly, the boy won the race. The boy slowly won the race. The boy won the race slowly. Kinds of adverbs Adverbs of manner: These types of adverbs show the manner in which an action took place. They answer the question how. Some examples include; bravely, fast, happily,hard,quickly, well etc. Adverbs of place. These types of adverbs indicate the place where an action came on and they answer the question where. Some examples include; school, down, here, near, there, up etc. Adverbs of time: These types of adverbs show the time of an action and they answer the question when. Some examples include; now, soon, still, then this morning etc. Adverbs of frequency: These types of adverbs show how often an action comes up and they answer the question how often. They include such words as; always, everyday, never, often, twice etc. Adverbs of degree: These types of adverbs indicate the extent to which an action comes on and they answer the question to which extent. Some common examples are; almost, fairly, rather, quite, very, so, too etc. Adverbs of reason: These types of adverbs show the reason for an action and they answer the question why. Some examples are; because, for, therefore, since etc.  Adverbs of condition: These types of adverbs show the condition under which an action could come on and they answer the question under which condition. Some common examples include; if, only, provided unless, etc. Adverbs of concession: These types of adverbs show allowance or what is conceded and they are introduced by such words as; though, although, even though, even if etc. Adverbs of result: These types of adverbs show the result of an action and they are introduced by such words as that, such that, therefore consequently etc. Adverbs with the same forms as adjectives The following are some examples of adverbs that have the same forms as adjectives. back far left low still early fast little much straight enough ill long more well Adverbs Adjectives The train went too fast This is the fast train She went straight home Draw a straight line You can dial London direct The direct route is best Comparative and superlative forms of adverbs This may vary with regular one syllable adverbs and two or more syllables and irregular adverbs e.g. Regular Regular (one syllable): hard harder hardest light lighter lightest strong stronger strongest Regular (Two or more syllables): quickly more quickly most quickly slowly more slowly most slowly Irregular Irregular forms: badly worse worst far farther farthest little less least much more most well better best Order of adverbs Like adjectives, when two or more adverbs come in a string, they usually follow a particular order as indicated below.  Adverbs of manner usually follow adverbs of direction e.g. (i) Janet walked away slowly. (ii) Laide ran off happily etc. Adverbs of manner usually come before adverbs of place e.g. (i) They were playing noisily outside (the house) (ii) You can buy fruits more cheaply here Adverbs of time often come last e.g. A thief bugles their house usually at night Types of Word Classes/Parts of Speech (Closed Class) 1. Preposition The term preposition is derived from a Latin word which simply means ‘placed before’. A preposition is, therefore, a non content word that shows different kinds of relationships between words. The relationships may be mental, psychological or that of location. Generally, prepositions come before the words they control. But in a few occasions, they may come after such words e.g. 1. Where are you coming from? 2. From where are you coming? Types of prepositions Prepositions come in different typologies in English. These include the following: 1. Simple prepositions e.g. in, on, at, from, above, below, under, off, of etc. 2. Double prepositions e.g. away from, from within, in to, on to along with, aside from, as to, together with, up to, out of etc. 3. Complex prepositions e.g. in contact with, in lieu of, by virtue of, by dint of, at variance with in respect of, in charge of etc. 4. Disguised prepositions e.g. ashore, ahunting, afishing o’clock etc. The use of some simple prepositions is illustrated in the chart below.  The possible positions of prepositions in sentences In questions with wh- words however, we usually put the preposition at the end of the sentence e.g. (a) Who are you talking to? (b) To whom were you talking is also possible but this usage is extremely formal In relative clauses, we usually put the preposition at the end of the clause and omit the relative pronoun e.g. (a) The people I was travelling with spoke French. However, in formal speech and writing we could also say: (b) The people with whom I was travelling spoke French. In phrasal verbs the preposition (or adverb) must come after the verb e.g. Which bridge did they blow up? Other guidelines for the use of simple prepositions.  At: We use at with a point in time, someone’s age or to indicate a particular location e.g. At 4.30, at dawn, at night, at (the age of) six, at the bank etc. On: We use on with a day or a date and with the morning/afternoon etc. e.g. On Monday, on Christmas day, on 4 June, on the morning of 6 December, on Friday night etc. On time means at the exact time arranged and not before or after it. e.g. The 8.30 train started on time (i.e. it started at 8.30 exactly). In: We use in with periods of time: e.g. in five minutes, in 1996, In the 9th century, in the morning/afternoon/evening etc. We also use it to indicate the infliction of injury e.g. (i) The player was injured in the knee. (ii) I slapped the girl in the face. Since: As a preposition, it means from a point in time up to the time of speaking. It could be used as a preposition, as an adverb and a conjunction e.g. (i) Kemi has been here since Monday (as a preposition) (ii) She left the village in 1980 and I haven't seen her since (adverb) (iii) She has worked for us(ever) since she left school (conjunction) By, as a means of movement: We travel by sea/air, by bus/plane/train, by bicycle or on a bicycle etc. For a bus on motion, we say; I was on the bus that had a ghastly accident. Into: We use into to indicate a movement from one place to another or to indicate entrance e.g. The students climbed into the lorry Onto: We use onto for movement when there is a change in level e.g. The family climbed onto their roof to escape the flood. 2. Pronouns I. Pronouns generally function either to replace a whole noun phrase (NP) as subject of a clause, or as the main component (Head) of an NP. Pronouns are thus generally perceived as performing the function of substitutes or ‘replacements’ for noun phrases. Where a pronoun functions to replace an NP, no determiner is usually needed e.g. The teacher invited the little Yoruba girl, because he liked her. a b a1 b1 A determiner is however needed in a number of cases Bisi cleaned the big room and the small one too. II. Study the following sentences showing the interrelationship between pronouns and determiners: (a) DETERMINER which house is yours? PRONOUN which is yours? DETERMINER this house is mine. PRONOUN this is my house. (b) DETERMINER ONLY The house is mine. (c) PRONOUN ONLY Alice has hurt herself. The boys were enjoined to love one another. You will observe that many items can function both as determiners (a) i.e. they require a head, and as pronouns which do not require a head. Others, however, can be determiner only, (b) or pronoun only. III. Leech and Svartvik (1975, p.276) observe that, partly because pronouns differ among themselves, partly because many pronouns are related to other categories, pronouns are examined under the following headings: DEMONSTRATIVES: this, that, these, those. INTERROGATIVES: who, which, what, where, etc. NEGATION: no, nobody, no one, nothing, etc. PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: I, my, mine, myself. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS: each other and one another. RELATIVE CLAUSES: who, whom, whose, which, that QUANTIFIERS: some, any, and very and their combinations with-body,-one,-thing,-each, all both, either; much, many, more, most, enough, several, a little, a few, less, least, etc. In this PRONOUNS section however, we shall only briefly look at just one of the headings, Personal and Reflexive Pronouns. Task 4: One thing you can do however is to examine each of the items listed under the heading in the on text of phrases, clauses and sentences. It will be clear to you that they perform replacement functions. IV. Personal and Reflexive Pronouns (a) The relationship between personal and reflexive pronouns can be examined in three ways: (i) Distinction between personal and non-personal Gender, and within personal gender between masculine and feminine; he/himself, she/herself on one hand, and it/itself on  the other. (ii) Distinction between 1st and 2nd and 3rd persons: e.g. 1st: I; we/myself; ourselves. (iii) Distinction between singular and plural number (of the example for ii above). Note that for the 2nd person the same form is used in singular and plural personal and possessive pronouns (i.e. you; your; yours), for the reflexive however, the Number distinction is marked, i.e. yourself/yourselves. Task 5: Since the pronoun is considered to be closed-system item, list or tabulate the items under the personal and reflexive pronouns of English taking note of the marking of Person, Gender, Number and Case (subjective or objective). Let us examine Personal pronouns a little further by taking note of the importance of context and grammatical position in the selection of person, number and gender on one hand, and case, on the other. The choice of Person, Number and Gender is determined by meaning as supplied by the context of use. Study the following examples and comment on the relations between NP and Pronoun: (i) My wife is resting, but she will come out soon. (ii) As soon as it was pushed, the car resuscitated. (iii) The car resuscitated as soon as it was pushed. (iv) As soon as the car was pushed, it resuscitated. Also, the choice of subjective and objective is determined by grammatical position. The subject position requires the subjective case, while the objective forms goes with all other positions. Examine this example of the subject complement in all objective case: (A) Who’s there? (B) It’s me (informal) or (B2) I am. Note that traditional grammar will rule out B1 and prescribe that it should be “It’s” or “I”. This is however avoided in contemporary English because it sounds rather unnatural. V. Let us conclude our discussions on Pronouns with the following highlight on further functional classification of Pronouns: (i) Place: Ojo is in Ibadan and Aina is there too. (ii) Time: Ojo left on Monday and Aina left then too (iii) Others: Bisi cleaned the big room very well, and the small one less so. (iv) ‘So’ also replaces a predication (along with the pro-verb ‘do’): Mrs. Aina hoped Bisi would clean the room very carefully, before her arrival but she didn’t do so. (v) The operator (do) can sometimes achieve the pro-predication alone: e.g. (A) She didn’t clean the big room  (B) Yes, she did. 3. Conjunctions h 4. Interjection DEFINITION OF INTERJECTION Interjections are words that forcefully convey strong emotions or surprises An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction. It is a diverse category, encompassing many different parts of speech, such as exclamations (ouch!, wow!), curses (damn!), greetings (hey, bye), response particles (okay, oh!, m-hm, huh?), hesitation markers (uh, er, um) and other words (stop, cool). Due to its diverse nature, the category of interjections partly overlaps with a few other categories like profanities, discourse markers and fillers. The use and linguistic discussion of interjections can be traced historically through the Greek and Latin Modistae over many centuries. An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses emotion. It interrupts, or interjects, the general flow of writing. An interjection is usually punctuated with an exclamation point. Any word or words may be used as an interjection. However, some are more common than others. Most interjections are just one word. FEATURES OF INTERJECTION It is used to indicate different feelings like fear, anger, happiness or joy Interjections often stand alone i.e. it does not enter into the construction of the sentence 1. Interjections are generally not meaningful in the structure of the sentence. 2. Interjections are sudden, so we can't change them. 3. Interjections are an indication of the mood of the conversation. 4. Interjections are exclamations, which do not affect the rest of the sentence. TYPES OF INTERJECTION 1. Primary Interjection 2. Secondary Interjection PRIMARY INTERJECTION These are single words used to express convey emotions. Examples: wow-amazement, hey, oh-fancy, Aah-scared, yahoo-happiness, hmm-hesitating. When primary interjections occurs as part of sentences, it is often followed by a comma as in Wow, what a nice result SECOND INTERJECTION This is interjection in a sentence. Ahh: that is great. Alas! I’m lost Congrats! You made it at last PILOT QUESTIONS 1 – 10 Tick the correct options from a to c 1. Aah! expresses ________ (a) fancy (b) scared (c) happiness 2. Boo! indicates _________ (a) fancy (b) disapproval (c) scared 3. Yahoo! means _________ (a) fancy (b) happiness (c) amazement 4. Hmm! indicates ________ (a) happiness (b) hesitating (c) scared 5. Ohh-la-la! means _______ (a) surprise (b) fancy (c) happiness 6. Alas! shows ___________ (a) surprise (b) fancy (c) happiness 7. Good God! is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above 8. Ooh! is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above 9. Congrats! you won is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above 10. Hmm! is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above Collocation 1. Collocate Collocation WEEK5 5 - Logical and Critical Thinking Logic LOGIC Logic is a term used to describe our perspectives of reasoning regarding specific propositions, which we accepted as true or false. Logic is simply the study of the forms of correct inference, that is, an inference of the truth or falsity of a proposition. the human capability of making logical inferences enables their perception of happenings to be true or false without directly experiencing the phenomenon/ situation. for instance, the following analogy has been created by Mosley and Baltazar (2019): Although we might infer the truth of the proposition, "It is raining outside”, from the wet raincoat and wet umbrella, normally we could still establish its truth or falsity independently by simply walking outside. But this kind of direct observation is not always possible. Suppose, for instance, that the safe in Jones' house has been robbed and we suspect Brown. Since the robbery has already taken place, it is not possible to directly observe who committed the robbery. The actual commission of the robbery is a historical fact no longer available to direc