Week 1 - Sound Patterns in English Language PDF

WEEK1 1 - Sound Patterns in English Language Synopsis and learning outcomes Introduction You have been introduced to the rudiments of the English Sound System in your various secondary schools and perhaps some post-secondary institutions you may have attended. In this week\`s session, you will build...

WEEK1 1 - Sound Patterns in English Language Synopsis and learning outcomes Introduction You have been introduced to the rudiments of the English Sound System in your various secondary schools and perhaps some post-secondary institutions you may have attended. In this week\`s session, you will build more on these rudiments as you are introduced to the fundamentals of Speaking based on the realization of the English sounds. You will also learn what constitutes the phonemes of English language and their combinatory possibilities in different communicative domains. In this introductory part, you will be introduced to the concepts of Phonetics and Phonology as well as the components of the English sound\-- Consonants and Vowel Sounds. Apart from this, the the various classifications of consonants and vowel sounds will be learnt in this session. Week 1 learning outcomes Upon the completion of this module, you should be able to: 1. explain the notion of Speaking; 2. explain and distinguish between the concepts of phonetics and phonology; 3. classify the vowel sounds; and 4. describe the various classification of consonant sounds. The Notion of Speaking The Notion of Speaking It is no doubt that the production of the human speech evolves in the human brain and involves some brain activities. before speaking, the human brain quickly and precisely coordinates the lips, jaw, tongue and larynx (voice box)\". The part of the human brain which performs this task and controls the human speech is called the ventral sensorimotor cortex, or vSMC. Researchers have discovered that the vSMC controls some part of the face and mouth (Wein, 2013). According to (Bock, 1995), speech production refers to the cognitive processes engaged in going from mind to mouth, that is, the processes transforming a nonlinguistic conceptual structure representing a communicative intention into a linguistically well-formed utterance. Speaking or speech production, is a highly complex motor act involving the finely coordinated activation of approximately 100 muscles in the respiratory, laryngeal, and oral motor systems (Guenther & Hickok, 2016). The opinions of Bock (1995), Wien (2013) and Guenther and Hickok (2016) have proven the involvement of the somato-sensory system in speech production. this explains why the organs in the pharyngeal cavity (oesophagus, glottis, larynx, voice-box, trachea), oral cavity (tongue, lips, teeth, palate, velum), and nasal cavity (nostrils) are involved in speech making. Therefore, when we speak, we produce speech sounds, hence, the conceptualization of speaking as \"Speech Production\". Speech involves the vocalizing of specific sounds called phonemes. Every language has specific phonemes that make sounds for that language. Speech is not limited to phonemes. Speech sounds are the vocal sounds we use to make up the words of the English language. We use them every time we say a word out loud. Saying the right sounds in the right order is what allows us to communicate with other people and understand what they are saying. 1. Speaking and the Mechanisms of Speech Speaking is simply the process of speech making. Speech is often produced by the air stream from the lungs, which goes through the trachea and the oral and nasal cavities. Naturally, speech does not start in the lungs of humans but in the human brain. The message is first of all created in the human mind. Subsequently, a representation of the message by sound sequence is formed in our minds. This is connected by a number of commands in our brain connected to the speech organs which be eventually produce the utterance (Belinchón & Igoa y Rivière). The metal activity precedes the physical production of sounds, that is the production of the sounds constituting the utterance by the air stream from the lungs, which goes through the trachea and the oral and nasal cavities. Four processes are involved in speech making\-- Initiation, phonation, oro-nasal process and articulation. The initiation process is the moment when the air is expelled from the lungs. In English, speech sounds are the result of "a pulmonic egressive air stream" (Giegerich, 1992) although that is not the case in all languages (ingressive sounds). The phonation process occurs at the larynx. The larynx has two horizontal folds of tissue in the passage of air; they are the vocal folds. The gap between these folds is called the glottis. 2. References Belinchón, M., José, M. & Igoa y Á. R. (1994). Psicología del Lenguaje: Investigación y teoría, Madrid: Trotta. Giegerich, H. J. (1992). English Phonology: An introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. What Is Phonetics The term, \"PHONETICS\", simply describes the science or study of speech sounds and their production, transmission, and reception, and their analysis, classification, and transcription. in another word, Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols. Because we knew little about what happens in the human brain when we are speaking, the science of phonetics has concentrated on the three central components of the speech chain, which are: i. acoustic phonetics; ii. articulatory phonetics; and iii. auditory phonetics. Even though phonetics is the study of speech, the traditional method of studying speech is different from the modern approach. Traditionally, phoneticians relied on their capabilities to study sound production and perception by monitoring ears and eyes movements as well as observing other vocal organs to study pronunciation. more recently however, the study of sound production and perception have been carried out using instruments of various types to supplement the information derivable from the study of the physical sensations. The modern approach to phenetics includes an investigation of speech by means of instruments, that is, instruments are now used to visualize some aspect of the speech event, so as to provide a basis for measurements. For example, a tape recording for the purpose of repeated listening does not fall within the scope of experimental phonetics, but if the tape recording is fed into a computer and used to produce an acoustic analysis, the activity would be described as an experimental investigation.\" 1. Phonetics Phonetics looks at human speech from three distinct but interdependent viewpoints: Articulatory phonetics (The Production of Speech)...studies how speech sounds are produced. Auditory phonetics (The Perception of Speech)...studies the way in which humans perceive sounds. Acoustic phonetics (The Physics of Speech)...studies the physical properties of speech sounds. Articulatory Phonetics Articulatory phonetics is interested in the movement of various parts of the vocal tract during speech. The vocal tract is the passages above the larynx where air passes in the production of speech. In simpler terms, it is understanding which part of the mouth moves when we make a sound. It is basic knowledge that we use different organs that help us to produce speech sounds. Those organs are called articulators. Some of them are- lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate, nasal passage, glottal folds, lungs, and so on. These organs behave in different manners to produce speech sounds for our everyday communication. Three of the main organs and their functions are described below. The Lungs The lungs is a bladder-like spongy organ filled with air which is located on both sides of the chest. The lungs can expand or contract by ingression or egression of air. When we breathe in, the air passes through the lungs through the trachea to the oral or nasal cavity. The Larynx The larynx is located behind Adam's apple. the vocal cords, also regarded as the voice box are a part of the larynx.. The Pharynx The pharynx contains all the active and passive articulators. It is a tube-like structure with two ends which is are regarded as the nasal and oral cavities. the entire part from the pharynx to the mouth is called the vocal tract. Auditory phonetics Auditory phonetics studies how we perceive and hear sounds and how the ear, brain and auditory nerve perceives the sounds. This branch deals with the physiological processes involved in the reception of speech. The speech sounds which are produced by the speaker get transmitted through the air such that the listeners use their auditory organ (ear) to listen to it. The brain plays the important role of assisting the listeners to comprehend the information/message sent by the speakers. 2. References Guenther, H. & Hickok, G. (2016). Neural models of motor speech controls. in G. Hikock and S. L. Small (Eds.) Neurobiology of Language. Nordquist, R. (2019). What Is Phonetics?: Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms. retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/phonetics-definition-1691622, accessed 26/12/2023. Laver, J. (2001). Linguistic Phonetics.\" The Handbook of Linguistics, ed. by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-Miller. Blackwell. Peter Roach, English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course, 4th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2009 Peter Roach, Phonetics. Oxford University Press, 2001. Katrina Hayward, Experimental Phonetics: An Introduction. Routledge, 2014 The Concept of Phonology Phonology studies the system of contrastive relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the fundamental components of a language. in other words, phonology is the study of the existing sounds in a language and across different languages. Apart from this, phonology is the study of how sounds in a language are categorised, organised and used to convey meaning. In any language we can identify a specific number of regularly occurring and used sounds which are also regarded as phonemes. Phonemes are the meaningfully different sound units in a language (the smallest units of sound). For example, 'pat' and 'bat' differ in their first phoneme: the "p" and "b". Vowels are also phonemes, so "pat" and "pet" differ by a phoneme, too (But phonemes don't always match up with spelling!). When two words differ by a single phoneme they are known as a minimal pair. it is particularly important to learn English pronunciation by virtue of phonemes rather than letters of the alphabet; one must be aware, for example, that the word \'awesome\' begins with the same vowel phoneme as that at the beginning of \'orange\' and ends with the same consonant as \'slim.\' awesome- /ɔ:səm/ orange- /ɔrɪndʒ/ slim- /slɪm Apart from the study of individual sounds (phonemes) and their properties, phonology also studies allophones. Allophones are variants of the same phoneme. It refers to the different ways of pronouncing a phoneme based on its environment in a word. For example, the two allophones of /l/ in "little" are actually produced slightly differently, and the second one sounds slightly deeper. These changes occur due to the different environments the sound is used in the word. Use the link below to watch a video on phonemes and allophones: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiB-sdGP\_yE&t=10 1. Branches Phonology Branches of Phonology Phonology studies speech sounds in isolation as will as the relationship that exist between between those sounds. These sounds are organised into a system of contrasts, which signal differences of meaning within the language. As a result of this, there is diversity in the scope of phonology. The branches of phonology are two: i. Segmental Phonology; and ii. Suprasegmental Phonology. Segmental Phonology Segmental phonology is concerned with the smallest units of sound, called phonemes, and their distribution and patterns within words. Segmental phonology also studies the way speech can be analysed as discrete units, or segments, that constitute the basis of the sound system; and this, along with the analysis of the various phonetic features and processes which relate and differentiate these segments. within the purview of segmental phonology, two things are examined, phones and allophones. hence, we can say in simple terms that segmental phonology is concerned with the study of phoneme inventories and their features (allophones) within a specific language. the segmental inventories of English Phonology can therefore be classified as vowel and consonant. Examples: Consonant: /p/, /b/ , /t/, /d/, /m/, /n/, /h/, /ʃ/, /ŋ/ etc. Vowel: /æ/, /ɛ/, /ə/, /a/, /e/, /i:/ , /u:/ , /3:/, etc. Suprasegmental Phonology Suprasegmental phonology is concerned with the way in which phonemes are combined to form larger units of sound, called syllables. Not only this, supra segmental phonology studies those features which extend more than one segment, such as intonation and rhythm. Suprasegmental phonology refers to intonation patterns, stress placement and rhythm in spoken language; also called prosody. These features influence the meaning and comprehension of spoken language, making them critical components of communication. Pitch Refers to the perceived frequency of a sound, playing an important role in conveying meaning through intonation and tone. In English, pitch can be used to differentiate between statements, questions, and exclamatory expressions. Stress Corresponds to the emphasis placed on a particular syllable or word when speaking. Stress can change the meaning of a word or an entire sentence, indicating the speaker\'s intention, attitude, or focus. Stress refers to the emphasis placed on specific syllables or words during speech, while rhythm denotes the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. Stress can change the meaning of a word or indicate the significance of a particular part of a sentence. To accurately identify stress patterns in speech, consider the following aspects:Intonation 1. Stressed syllables: These are pronounced more forcefully, with a higher pitch and longer duration than unstressed syllables. For example, in the word \"emphasis,\" the stress is placed on the second syllable: em-pha-sis. 2. Word stress: Identifying word stress in multi-syllable words is crucial for comprehension. The position of the stress can change a word\'s meaning (e.g., increase as a verb versus increase as a noun). 3. Sentence stress: Within a sentence, certain words receive more focus to convey the speaker\'s message or intention. This often includes content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives) and excludes functional words (articles, prepositions). The variation in pitch across a phrase or sentence that can convey different meanings or emotions. For example, a rising intonation might indicate a question, whereas a falling intonation can indicate a statement. Tone is an essential feature of suprasegmental phonetics that has a significant impact on the understanding and interpretation of speech. It refers to variations in pitch that can alter the meaning and emotional content of a word or phrase. Tones are particularly crucial in tonal languages such as Mandarin, where the meaning of a word can change dramatically based on its pitch. Although English is not a tonal language, intonation---a form of tone---plays a significant role in conveying the appropriate message and emotion. Types of Tone While the English language is not tonal, it still features varying pitch patterns that influence communication. The most common tones in the English language can be categorised as follows: o Falling Tune: A falling tone is marked by a decrease in pitch towards the end of a phrase or sentence, typically in statements or commands. o Rising Tune: Rising tones have an increasing pitch towards the end of a phrase or sentence, commonly found in yes/no questions and polite requests. o Fall-Rise: This tone features a decrease in pitch followed by an increase, indicative of uncertainty or reservation. o Rise-Fall: With an initial rise in pitch followed by a decline, this tone is often used to convey strong emotions such as surprise or disapproval. Rhythm Refers to the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech, which shapes the flow and tempo of spoken language. Rhythm allows listeners to understand and predict the structure of speech. It is an ordered recurrent alternation of strong and weak elements in the flow of sound and silence in speech The sounds are organized into a system of contrasts, which signal differences of meaning within the language. The sounds are organized into a system of contrasts, which signal differences of meaning within the language. Consonant Sounds Consonants sounds are those sounds that are produced by setting air in motion from the lungs. Consonant sounds often represent certain speech sounds that are realised when the air passage is blocked totally or partially before it leaves the mouth, such as with the tongue, lips, or throat. Classification of Consonant Sounds Consonant sounds are classified into the following categories based on two parameters, namely: i. Place of articulation -- with reference to the parts of the mouth that are used to pronounce the particular sounds. by virtue of the pronunciation organs, consonant sounds are classified into the following categories: Bilabial -- the upper lip and lower lip come in complete contact with each other, e.g., /m/ Dental -- the tip of the tongue touches the teeth mildly. Labio-dental -- the lower lip and the upper teeth come in contact with each other. Palatal -- the body of the tongue touches the hard palate. Alveolar -- the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Palato-alveolar -- the blade/tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, and the body of the tongue approaches the hard palate. Velar -- the body of the tongue comes in contact with the soft palate (also called the velum). Glottal -- the vocal cords come into contact and produce friction. ii. Manner of articulation -- with reference to the movement of air from the lungs and through and out of the nose and mouth. the classification of the consonants of English based on the features related to the manner of production are presented as follows: Plosive -- a sound produced by the air being blocked inside the vocal tract followed by the release of air from the mouth. Fricative -- a sound produced by positioning the mouth in a particular manner so as to partially block the air coming out of the mouth. Affricate -- a combination of a plosive and fricative manner, in which sound is produced by the blocking of air and finally releasing it through a partial passage. Nasal -- a sound produced when the air passes and escapes through the nose. Lateral -- a sound produced by the air escaping from the mouth and sides of the tongue. Approximant -- a sound produced when the tip of the tongue slightly touches the alveolar ridge, and the air escapes through the gap between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Description of the English Consonant Sounds The twenty-four (24) consonant sounds of English are described as follows: 1. Phonology Phonology studies speech sounds in isolation. Vowel Sounds 1. Vowel Sound Vowels Vowels are produced through the flow of air directed into different parts of the mouth. All vowels are voiced in English. Vowels are of three types: i. the monophthongs: those that constitute a single sound, e.g., /ɪ/ ii. the diphthongs: those that constitute two monophthong vowels, e.g., /aɪ/ iii. the triphthongs: those that constitute three monophthongs vowels, e.g, /aɪә/ Unlike the consonant sounds, all vowels are voiced sounds irrespective of the types (as illustrated above). However, single vowels which are monophthongs can be either long or short. Those monophthongs vowels that have the diacritic \[:\] are long vowels while those without the diacritic are short vowels. Monophthongs The English monophthong vowels are regarded as the pure vowels. They are twelve in number. These vowel sounds are called monophthong because they are pronounced as a single, unchanging sound, without any significant change in quality or length. In other words, it is a single vowel sound that remains constant throughout its pronunciation is a monophthong vowel. Based on their representation on the vowel chart, the monophthong vowels can be classified as based on the shape of the lips, height of the tongue and length of the tongue. Description of the English Monophthongs There are two types of monophthongs: long and short monophthongs. There are 5 long vowels and 7 short ones. Long /a:/ as in calm. /u:/ as in cool. /i:/ as in leap. /3:/ as in turn. /ɔ:/ as in all. Short /ɪ/ as in sit. /ʊ/ as in boot. /e/ as in bed. /ə/ as in letter. /æ/ as in rat. /ʌ/ as in bus. /ɒ/ as in pot. Diphthongs Unlike monophthongs which constitute single sounds, diphthongs are combination of two monophthongs. Also, diphthongs are vowel sounds that involve a gradual change in quality and length, such as the \"oi\" sound in \"boil\" or the \"au\" sound in \"caught\". Diphthongs are gliding vowels, created when a speaker glides from one vowel sound glides into another. The totality of the English language diphthongs are eight. the diphthongs are illustrated as follows: /eɪ/ as in late (/leɪt/) or gate (/geɪt/) /ɪə/ as in dear (/dɪə/) or fear (/fɪə/) /eə/ as in fair (/feə/) or care (/keə/) /ʊə/ as in sure (/ʃʊə/) or cure (/kjʊə/) /əʊ/ as in globe (/ˈgləʊb/) or show (/ʃəʊ/) /ɔɪ/ as in join (/ʤɔɪn/) or coin (/kɔɪn/) /aɪ/ as in time (/taɪm/) or rhyme (/raɪm/) /aʊ/ as in cow (/kaʊ/) or how (/haʊ/) Description of the English Diphthong Vowels The categories of the English diphthongs are falling and rising diphthongs, opening, closing, centring diphthongs, and wide and narrow diphthongs. Falling diphthongs are diphthongs that begin with a higher pitch or volume and end with a lower pitch or volume. The most common falling diphthong is /aɪ/ found in words like eye, flight and kite. Here the first vowel sound is the syllable-building sound. Rising diphthongs are the opposite of falling diphthongs. They begin with a lower pitch or volume and end with a higher pitch or volume. The rising diphthong sound is created in English when a vowel follows a semivowel. The semivowels are /j/ and /w/. There are no specific phonemic representations (e.g. /əʊ/) for rising diphthongs, as they are usually analysed as a sequence of two phonemes (e.g. /wiː/). The rising diphthong sound can be heard in words like yell (/jel/), weed (/wiːd/), and walk (/wɔːk/). Closing diphthongs have a second vowel sound that is more 'closed' than the first. A closed vowel is pronounced with the tongue in a much higher position in the mouth (e.g. /iː/ in see). Centring diphthongs have a second vowel that is mid-central, i.e. it is pronounced with the tongue in a neutral or central position. The mid-central vowel sound is also known as the schwa (/ə/). Any diphthong ending with the schwa sound can be considered a centring diphthong, e.g. /ɪə/ found in dear, /eə/ found in fair, and /ʊə/ found in cure. Wide diphthongs require a large tongue movement from the first vowel sound to the second vowel sound. In wide diphthongs, the sound difference between the two vowel sounds will be more prominent.