IBN TOFAIL UNIVERSITY Grammar III 2021/2022 PDF

IBN TOFAIL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF LETTERS, LANGUAGES, AND ARTS ENGLISH DEPARTMENT GRAMMAR III Profs: ANASSE - SMIRKOU - EL KEMMA 2021/2022 Part 1: Parts of speech 1. Parts of speech and kinds...

IBN TOFAIL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF LETTERS, LANGUAGES, AND ARTS ENGLISH DEPARTMENT GRAMMAR III Profs: ANASSE - SMIRKOU - EL KEMMA 2021/2022 Part 1: Parts of speech 1. Parts of speech and kinds v 1. 1. Noun and kinds 1.2. Pronoun and kinds 1.3. Verb and kinds 1.4. Adjective and kinds 1.5. Adverb and kinds 1.6. Preposition and kinds 1.7. Conjunction and kinds 1.8. interjections and Kinds Part 2: Phrases and their Functions 2.0. What is a Phrase? 2.1. Prepositional Phrases 2.2. Adjective Phrases and Adjectival Phrases 2.3. Noun Phrases 2.4. Adverb Phrases and Adverbial Phrases 2.5. Verb Phrases and Phrasal Verbs 2.6. Co-ordination Quick Summary Part 3: Clauses and their Functions 3.1. Co-ordinate Clauses, Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses 3.2. Relative Clauses 3.3. Adverbial Clauses 3.4. Noun Clauses 3.5. Non-Finite and Verbless Clauses 3.6. Ellipsis Quick Summary BBA Program PARTS OF SPEECH 1 Learning Parts of Speech is very important as each of the words of a sentence is a part of speech. To make proper sentences, learners have to learn parts of speech properly. Without knowing and learning parts of speech accurately learners will not be able to join words and make meaningful sentences. Moreover, understanding the Parts of Speech is also essential for putting proper punctuation marks in the sentences. In this Unit ‘Parts of Speech’ has been discussed elaborately. There are 9 lessons in this Unit. Each lesson will discuss the definition and kinds with some supporting examples. The first lesson discusses the definition and kinds of Parts of Speech and the next 8 lessons discuss 8 kinds of Parts of Speech along with their classification and examples. Time of completion 2 weeks Lessons of the Unit: Lesson-1.1 : Parts of Speech and Kinds Lesson-1.2 : Noun and Kinds Lesson-1.3 : Pronoun and Kinds Lesson-1.4 : Verb and Kinds Lesson-1.5 : Adjective and Kinds Lesson-1.6 : Adverb and Kinds Lesson-1.7 : Preposition and Kinds Lesson-1.8 : Conjunction and Kinds Lesson-1.9 : Interjection and Kinds Unit-1 Page 1  General English (Parts of Speech) Lesson-1.1 Parts of Speech and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of different parts of speech; find out the kinds of parts of speech; determine the correct definition of a word when using the dictionary; use parts of speech properly in your conversation and writing; complete the exercise by yourself. Definition of parts of speech Basically, the term ‘parts of speech’ refers to each and every part of a sentence. So, each and every part of a sentence is ‘parts of speech’. But, according to the definition, a part of speech is a category of words based on the word’s function or grammatically the way it works in a sentence. A particular word can function more than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Classification of parts of speech: There are eight parts of speech in the English language: 1. Noun: Noun indicates any kinds of names of living beings or things. As – Raihan is a responsible person. Here, person is a noun and Raihan is also a noun. 2. Pronoun: Pronoun indicates words which take place instead of noun. As – Raihan is a responsible person. He completes all of his tasks before deadlines. Here, Raihan is replaced by he in the previous sentence and this he is a pronoun. 3. Verb: Verb indicates words which express works or action. As – Raihan helps people whenever needed. Whatever Raihan does is an example of verb. Here, helps is the verb as it indicates a work. 4. Adjective: Adjective indicates words which modifies the noun or pronoun. As – Raihan is a responsible person. Unit-1 Page 2 BBA Program Words which express how Raihan is are examples of adjective. Here, responsible is the example of adjective. 5. Adverb: Adverb indicates words which modifies the verb or adverb. As – Raihan walks fast. Words that describe how Raihan works are examples of adverb. Here, fast is the example of adverb. 6. Preposition: Preposition indicates words governing and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause. As – Raihan is going to school. This to takes place before a noun ‘school’ and expresses a relationship between “go” and “school”. This to is a preposition. 7. Conjunction: Conjunction indicates words which connect words or clauses or sentences. As – Raihan and Sumon are good friends. This and is connecting Raihan and Sumon. This and is a conjunction. 8. Interjection: Interjection indicates remarks, expressions or feelings. As – Wow! What a brilliant student Raihan is! This Wow! is expressing a good feeling of excitement. This is an example of Interjection. Summary Each and every part of a sentence is ‘parts of speech’. There are eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection. These eight parts of speech work in different ways in sentences. Therefore, learning parts of speech is very essential. Without knowing and learning parts of speech accurately learners will not be able to join words and make meaningful sentences. Unit-1 Page 3  General English (Parts of Speech) Lesson-1.2 Noun and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of noun; find out the kinds of noun; use nouns properly in your conversation and writing; capitalize nouns properly when needed. Definition of noun A noun refers to the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Man, Ritu, Rahim, Dhaka College, house, happiness, friendship, etc. are the examples of noun. As – Ritu is a good girl. Here, Ritu refers to a name. This is a noun. A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. In most cases nouns are used with an article (the, a, an), but not always. The functions of nouns in a sentence are versatile: for example, a noun can work as a subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. The young boy brought me a very soft chair from his house, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! In this sentence – boy, chair, house refer to names of different kinds or things. They are nouns. Classification of nouns There are many types of nouns. Some most used nouns are – 1. Common nouns Common nouns refer to general, unspecific categories. So, while “Dhaka” is a proper noun because it names a specific city, city is a common noun because it can refer to any city. While "Dhaka College" refers to a particular place of higher learning, the common noun college can refer to any college of that type. As – Dhaka is the capital city of Bangladesh. Dhaka College is one of the most famous colleges in Bangladesh. Here, city and colleges are the examples of common noun. Unit-1 Page 4 BBA Program 2. Proper nouns Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific people, places or things. Proper nouns like Rahim, Ritu or Jamuna are capitalized to show their distinction from common nouns, such as “man”, “woman” or “river”. Proper nouns start with a capital letter while the other nouns do not. As – Dhaka is the capital city of Bangladesh. Dhaka College is one of the most famous colleges in Bangladesh. Here, Dhaka and Dhaka College are the examples of proper noun. 3. Concrete nouns Concrete nouns refer to things that exist physically and can be touched, seen, smelled, felt, or tasted that means concrete nouns can be perceived by at least one of our five senses. As – I can hold the cat. Honey tastes sweet. Here, cat and honey are the examples of concrete noun. 4. Abstract nouns The name ‘Abstract’ refers to something which is not material or concrete, which cannot be touched physically or eaten or smelt, which can only be felt and abstract nouns refer to them. The things which are classified as Abstract Nouns are – theoretical concepts, qualities, ideas, conditions like love, hate, anger, hate, power, time, etc. As – All the world needs are love and peace. Asif hates his new hostel. Here, love, peace and hates are the examples of abstract noun. 5. Collective nouns Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of something in particular. Often, Collective Nouns are used to refer to groups of animals. Consider the following sentences. As – Look at that gaggle of geese. There used to be herds of wild buffalo on the prairie. Here, gaggle of geese and herds are the examples of collective noun. 6. Compound nouns The word ‘compound’ refers to something plural or added. A compound noun refers to two or more words that join together to make a single noun. Compound nouns can be two words written as one (closed form), such as softball and toothpaste; words that are hyphenated (hyphenated form), such as six-pack and son-in-law; or separate words (open form), such as post office and upper class that go together by meaning. As – Every parent is a superhero. Unit-1 Page 5  General English (Parts of Speech) Use your old toothbrush to clean the comb. Here, superhero and toothbrush are the examples of compound noun. 7. Countable nouns Countable nouns refer to nouns which can be counted. Countable nouns can be used in both single and plural forms, can be modified by numbers, and can co-occur with quantifying determiners, such as many, most, more, several etc. For example, the noun car is a countable noun. As – There is a car in that showroom. In this example, the word car is singular because it refers to one car that is in a particular showroom. However, car can also take the plural form. As – There are six cars in that showroom. In this example, the plural noun “cars” refers to more than one car because it is being modified by a particular number ‘six’. In addition, countable nouns can be used with determiners like “several” rather than a number. As – In that showroom, there are several cars. 8. Uncountable nouns On the other hand, uncountable nouns refer to nouns which are not countable. They are uncountable, non-countable or mass nouns. For example, the word clutter is an uncountable noun. As – The garage is full of clutter. This sentence makes grammatical sense. However, the following example does not. That garage is full of clutters. Uncountable nouns usually cannot take plural forms. Therefore, “clutters” is not grammatically correct. Liquids and powders are among the items that are considered Mass Nouns, such as milk, rice, wood, sand, water and flour. Other more abstract examples that cannot be counted would be air, freedom or intelligence. As – Give me some water. 9. Material nouns Material nouns refer to materials or substances from which things are made. As – gold. Gold is an adjective when used in "Gold earring." However, gold is a material noun when used to describe the metal. As – Gold can be found from some rivers. Here, Gold is the example of material noun. Unit-1 Page 6 BBA Program 10. Possessive nouns Possessive nouns refer to ownership over something else. They can be easily found if there is an apostrophe. These nouns are demonstrating ownership, but they're also still persons, places, or things. As – Ritu's phone is not working. Bangladesh’s beauty is truly breathtaking. Here, the apostrophes after Ritu (Ritu's) and Bangladesh (Bangladesh’s beauty) indicate possessive nouns. Summary A noun refers to the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. There are many classifications of noun. Some nouns take capital form whereas some do not. Learning and identifying nouns are very essential for learners to write grammatically correct sentences and capitalize words Unit-1 Page 7  General English (Parts of Speech) Lesson-1.3 Pronoun and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of pronoun; find out the kinds of pronoun; use pronouns properly in your conversation and writing. Definition of pronoun A pronoun refers to a word used in place of a noun. She, he, we, they, it etc are the examples of pronoun. As – Ritu is a good girl. She goes to school every day. Here, the word she is a substitute of Ritu. It is a pronoun. The young boy brought me a very soft chair from his house, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! In this sentence – me, his and he are the pronouns. Classification of pronouns There are many different types of pronouns. They are – 1. Demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns refer to demonstrate or indicate. This, that, these and those are the examples of demonstrative pronouns. As – This is the pen drive I left in the classroom. I should have taken those. Here, This and those are the examples of demonstrative pronouns. 2. Indefinite pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific things. This is the largest group of pronouns. All, some, any, several, anyone, nobody, each, both, few, either, none, one and no one are the examples of indefinite pronoun. As – Somebody should take the responsibility. (Somebody is not a specific person.) We were all in the group, but some of us are not cooperating. Here, Somebody, all and some are the examples of indefinite pronouns. 3. Interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns refer to pronouns those are used in questions. Who, which, what, where and how are all interrogative pronouns. As – Who is coming to the party? Unit-1 Page 8 BBA Program Which book is yours? Here, Who and Which are the examples of interrogative pronouns. 4. Personal pronouns The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, they and who. In most cases, they replace nouns representing people. When most people think of pronouns, it is the personal pronouns that usually come to mind. As – We can easily win the match. They will visit us soon. Here, Who and Which are the examples of personal pronouns. 5. Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns refer to show possession. The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours and theirs. As – The pen is mine. This is her dog. Here, mine and her are the examples of possessive pronouns. 6. Relative pronouns A relative pronouns refer to nouns mentioned earlier which include people, places, things, animals, or ideas. Relative pronouns can be used to join two sentences. Which, that, who (including whom and whose) and where are the examples of relative pronouns. As – I saw the boy who stood first last year. The girl became a police officer whose father is a teacher. Here, who and whose are the examples of relative pronouns. 7. Reciprocal pronouns Reciprocal pronouns refer to actions or feelings that are reciprocated which mean two or more people receive the consequence of an action simultaneously. The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. As – They hate each other. Don’t go against one another. Here, each other and one another are the examples of reciprocal pronouns. 8. Reflexive pronouns A reflexive pronoun refers to another noun or pronoun in the sentence. Reflexive pronouns end with...self or...selves. The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves. As – Do the homework by yourself. Zahid made the cake himself. Here, yourself and himself are the examples of reflexive pronouns. Unit-1 Page 9  General English (Parts of Speech) 9. Intensive (or Emphatic) pronouns An intensive pronoun (or an emphatic pronoun) refers back to another noun or pronoun in the sentence to emphasize it. As – John bakes all the bread himself. She hit herself. Here, himself and herself are the examples of intensive pronouns. Summary A pronoun refers to a word used in place of a noun. There are different types of pronouns. However, finding out the different classifications of pronouns are very interesting and easy. Pronoun is quite useful as using nouns several times in sentences is not possible and that looks weird as well. Thus, learning the use of pronouns helps a lot to make correct and rich sentences. Unit-1 Page 10 BBA Program Lesson-1.4 Verb and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of verb; find out the kinds of verb; use verbs properly in your conversation and writing; make proper sentences using right kind of verbs. Definition of verb A verb refers to an action or being. Without a verb there cannot be any sentence. The most interesting thing is that only one verb can make a complete meaningful sentence. As – Go. Eat. Come. All of them are the examples of verb. As – She is going to school. In a sentence there is a main verb and sometimes one or more helping verbs. Going is the main verb in the above mentioned sentence while is is the helping or auxiliary verb. Verbs also take different forms to express tense. The young boy brought me a very soft chair from his house, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! In this sentence, brought and disappeared refer to actions and they indicate about incidents which happened in the past. These parts of speech are called verb. Classification of verbs There are different kinds of verbs. They are – 1. Action verbs: Action verbs refers to action (go, eat, write, etc.) or possession (have, own, etc.). As – I eat rice. I have a black fountain pen. Here, eat and have are the examples of action verb. Action verbs can be either transitive or intransitive. i. Transitive verbs: A transitive verb refers to a verb that accepts one or more objects. As – Ritu eats rice. Here, the verb is eats. ‘Rice’ is the object receiving the verb eats action. Therefore, eats is a transitive verb. Transitive verbs can have more than one object. As – Abdul gave Rajib the pencil. Unit-1 Page 11  General English (Parts of Speech) Here, the verb is gave. The direct object is the pencil. (What did he give? – The pencil.) The indirect object is Rajib. (To whom did he give it? – To Rajib.) ii. Intransitive verbs: An intransitive verb never takes a direct or indirect object. As – Ritu goes slowly to her school. Here, the verb is goes. The phrase ‘slowly to her school’ modifies the verb, but no object receives the action. Note : If ‘what’ or ‘whom’ is asked to the verb and an answer or more than one answer comes, we can find out that the verb has one or more than one object. Like in the first sentence, we get the answer of what. Ritu eats rice. What does she eat? The answer is ‘rice’. That is mono transitive verb. Abdul gave Rajib the pencil. What does Abdul give? – A pencil. Whom does he give the pencil? – To Rajib. Two answers of ‘what’ and ‘whom’ are found. This is an example of di transitive verb. 2. Linking verbs: A linking verb connects the subject of a sentence to a noun or adjective that renames or describes the subject. As – Rajib became a business major. The verb became, links the subject Rajib to its complement ‘a business major’. The most common linking verb is the verb to be in all of its forms (am, are, is, was, were etc.). These verbs are also known as helping verbs. 3. Helping verbs/ Auxiliary verbs: Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs are used before action or linking verbs to provide with additional information regarding aspects of possibility (can, could etc.) or time (was, did, has etc.). As – Sajib is flying to China. The trip might be enjoyable. The verbs in the above mentioned sentence are – Sajib is (helping/auxiliary verb) flying (main verb) to China. The trip might (helping/auxiliary verb) be (main verb) enjoyable. Can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to etc. are called modals and they always work as helping verbs. Summary A verb refers to an action or being. Verbs are very essential for making sentences as without a verb there cannot be a sentence and only one verb can make a completely sound and correct sentence. There are many kinds of verbs. Learning and identifying all kinds of verbs are very important to make meaningful and correct sentences. Unit-1 Page 12 BBA Program Lesson-1.5 Adjective and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of adjective; find out the kinds of adjective; use adjectives properly in your conversation and writing. Definition of adjective An adjective is a part of speech which modifies or describes the quality, quantity, situation, state or feature of a noun or pronoun. Pretty, ugly, blue, smart etc are the examples of adjectives. As – The young boy brought me a very soft chair from his home, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! In this sentence young refers to the feature of the boy and soft refers to the feature of the chair. They are the adjectives of that sentence. Classification of adjectives Adjectives can be classified into three parts: 1. Descriptive adjectives Descriptive adjectives refer to the features or characteristics of a noun. They can tell you about a noun’s size, color, shape, taste, and more. Some examples are good, bad small, yellow, round, friendly and salty. As − The golden wooden pen is mine. Here, golden and wooden are descriptive adjectives that describe the pen. 2. Quantitative adjectives Quantitative adjectives describe the exact or approximate amount of a noun. All, no, few, many and little are the examples of qualitative adjectives. My brother has four cars. There are 28 boys and 30 girls are in this class. Here, four, 28 and 30 are the examples of Quantitative Adjective. i. Numeral adjective: Numeral adjectives are quantitative adjectives that give exact number amounts (like – five, seven, twentieth, first and fifth). As − She stood first in the class. In this case, first is a numeral adjective that refers to her position in the class. Unit-1 Page 13  General English (Parts of Speech) 3. Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative adjectives refer to particular nouns. This, that, these and those are some examples of demonstrative adjectives. As − He went to that road. Here, that is a demonstrative adjective that describes which road we’re referring to. Summary An adjective is a part of speech which modifies or describes the quality, quantity, situation, state or feature of a noun or pronoun. In other words, an adjective indicates or tells how a noun or pronoun is. There are many kinds of adjectives. Learning and identifying adjectives are very important as without adjectives the description of a person or object is impossible.. Unit-1 Page 14 BBA Program Lesson-1.6 Adverb and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of adverb; find out the kinds of adverb; use adverbs properly in your conversation and writing. Definition of adverb: An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. Adverbs often (but obviously not always) end in -ly. Beautifully, extremely, very, well are some examples of adverbs. The young boy brought me a very soft chair from his house, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! In this sentence very modifies the adjective soft, then gives the answer of when and quickly gives the answer of how. So, these are the adverbs of this sentence. Classification of adverbs There are different kinds of adverbs. They are – 1. Adverbs of time An adverb of time refers to the time when an action happens or when a verb takes place. Adverbs of time are usually placed at the beginning or end of a sentence. Never, lately, just, always, recently, during, yet, soon, sometimes, usually, so far etc. are the examples of Adverbs of Time. As − Sometimes we can overlook some mistakes, but not always. I have not seen him recently. Here, Sometimes, always and recently are the examples of adverbs of time. 2. Adverbs of place Adverbs of place refer to the place where the verb is taking place. These are usually placed after the main verbs or objects, or at the end of the sentences. Here, there, nowhere, everywhere, out, in, above, below, inside, outside, into etc. are the examples of Adverbs of Place. As − He has just vanished into nowhere. She is inside the room. Here, nowhere and inside are the examples of adverbs of place. Unit-1 Page 15  General English (Parts of Speech) 3. Adverbs of manner Adverbs of manner provide more information about how an action or a verb is done. Adverbs of manner are probably the most common of all adverbs. Most of them will end in –ly. Neatly, slowly, quickly, sadly, calmly, politely, loudly, kindly, lazily are the examples of Adverbs of manner. As – He politely thanked us for inviting his party. We slowly entered into the hall room. Here, politely and slowly are the examples of adverbs of manner. 4. Adverbs of degree Adverbs of degree refer to the level or intensity of or modify a verb, adjective, or even another adverb. Almost, quite, nearly, too, enough, just, hardly, simply, so etc. are the examples of Adverbs of Degree. As – The room is exclusively adorned. Antora is a very fast reader. Here, exclusively and very are the examples of adverbs of degree. 5. Adverbs of frequency Adverbs of frequency refer to how often the verb occurs. They’re often placed directly before the main verb of a sentence. Never, always, rarely, sometimes, normally, seldom, usually, again etc are the examples of Adverbs of Frequency. As – Barking dog seldom bites. I normally don’t take medicines. Here, seldom and normally are the examples of adverbs of frequency. 6. Adverbs of quantity Adverbs of quantity refer to the quantity or how much or how many of something you have. As – We need more food. We are almost there. Here, more and almsot are the examples of adverbs of quantity. Summary An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. Adverbs often (but obviously not always) end in -ly. However, all the adverbs do not end in -ly. There are many kinds of adverbs. Adverbs are very essential to describe a verb, an adjective or an adverb. Unit-1 Page 16 BBA Program Lesson-1.7 Preposition and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of preposition; find out the kinds of preposition; use prepositions properly in your conversation and writing. Definition of preposition: A preposition refers to a word placed before a noun or pronoun expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause. By, with, about, until, on, in etc. are the examples of preposition. (by the river, with our family, about the film, until next week, on the roof, in the book) A young boy brought me a very soft chair from his house, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! Here from is making relationship between ‘chair’ and ‘his house’. Thus, from is the preposition in the sentence. Classification of preposition There are five different types of prepositions: 1. Simple prepositions Simple prepositions refer to indicate a location, time or place. At, for, in, off, on, over and under are the examples of Simple Preposition. As – The bird is over my head. The book is on the table. Here, over and on are the examples of simple prepositions. 2. Double prepositions Double prepositions refer to two simple prepositions added together, often indicating direction. Into, upon, onto, out of, from within are the examples of Double Preposition. As− The teacher entered into the classroom. We have to submit the assignment within this week. Here, into and within are the examples of double prepositions. 3. Compound prepositions Compound prepositions (or complex prepositions) refer to prepositions consist of two or more words, usually a simple preposition and another word, to indicate location. In addition to, on behalf of and in the middle of are the examples of Compound Preposition. As – Unit-1 Page 17  General English (Parts of Speech) In the middle of his conversation, the Chairman had to leave the party. On behalf of our teacher, we attended the conference. Here, In the middle of and On behalf of are the examples of compound prepositions. 4. Participle prepositions Participle prepositions refer to verbs which have endings like -ed and -ing. Considering, during, concerning, provided are the examples of Participle Preposition. As − Do not leave anything pending for later. According to our Chairman, the apology is unacceptable. Here, pending and According are the examples of participle prepositions. 5. Phrase prepositions Phrase prepositions (or prepositional phrases) refer to ‘a preposition, an object, and the object's modifier’ altogether. On time, at home, before class and on the floor are the examples of Phrase Preposition. As − I eat at the dining hall. Deliver the products on time. Here, at the dining hall and on time are the examples of phrase prepositions. Summary A preposition refers to a word placed before a noun or pronoun expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause. There are different kinds of preposition. The incorrect use of preposition can change the meaning of a sentence. Thus, learning the use of appropriate preposition is very important. Unit-1 Page 18 BBA Program Lesson-1.8 Conjunction and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of conjunction; find out the kinds of conjunction; use conjunctions properly in your conversation and writing. Definition of conjunction A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses and refers to the relationship between the elements it joined. And, but, or, while, because etc are the examples of conjunction. The young boy brought me a very soft chair from his house, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! In this sentence and joins two independent clauses. Thus, and is the conjunction in the sentence. Classification of conjunction There are three classification of conjunction. 1. Coordinating conjunction As the name suggests, Coordinating Conjunctions add two or more grammatically equal words or clauses or phrases. They do not usually take place in the beginning or at the end of a sentence, rather in the middle of the words or groups of words. As – Keya and Ritu are two sisters. Here, and is the example of coordinating conjunction. There is an easy formula to remember Coordinating Conjunctions which is “FANBOYS,” and that stands for: F – For A – And N – Nor B – But O – Or Y – Yet S – So Unit-1 Page 19  General English (Parts of Speech) 2. Subordinating conjunction This type of conjunctions is often used to add two different clauses together. While, as soon as, although, since, as are the examples of subordinating conjunctions. As – Since yesterday was a holiday, I did not go to school. I’ll go, if you come. Here, Since and if are the examples of subordinating conjunction. It can be easily noticed that subordinating conjunctions can take their places in the beginning or in the middle of the sentence to add two different clauses together. Moreover, between these two clauses (independent clause and dependent clause), a comma is needed as well. 3. Correlative conjunction The correlative conjunctions refer to pairs of conjunctions which are used to join equal sentence elements together. Either… or, neither… nor, not only… but also, both… and, whether… or, so… as etc. are the examples of correlative conjunction. As – Either Keya or Ritu will attend the party. He is not only a good student, but also a good singer. Here, Either… or and not only… but also are the examples of correlative conjunction. Summary A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses and refers to the relationship between the elements it joined. There are different types of conjunctions. Some conjunctions take place at the beginning of the sentence, some at the middle and some at the end. Thus, learning the use of the conjunction is very important for making accurate sentences. Unit-1 Page 20 BBA Program Lesson-1.9 Interjection and Kinds Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to: understand the definition of interjection; find out the kinds of interjection; use interjections properly in your conversation and writing. Definition of interjection An interjection is a word used to express emotion. Oh!, Wow!, Oops!, Hurray! Etc are the examples of Interjection. The young boy brought me a very soft chair from his home, and then he quickly disappeared. Oh my God! Oh my God! is explaining the expression of being astonished in the sentence. That is why it is the example of Interjection. Classification of interjection Interjection can be classified into different categories. The most common categories are – 1. Interjections for greeting These types of interjections refer to indicate the emotion of warmth to the person meeting with words like – hey, hello, hi etc. As – Hey! Where have you been? Hello! I am Rajib. Here, Hey! and Hello! are the examples of interjections of greeting. 2. Interjections for joy These types of interjections refer to immediate joy and happiness on any happy occasion occurred like – hurrah, wow, hurray etc. As – Wow! What a great news! Hurray! We have won this trophy. Here, Wow! and Hurray! are the examples of interjections of joy. 3. Interjections for approval These types of interjections refer to the strong sense of approval or agreement for something that has happened like – well done, bravo, brilliant etc. As – Well done! You got an A+. Unit-1 Page 21  General English (Parts of Speech) Bravo! This is a great decision. Here, Well done! and Bravo! are the examples of interjections of approval. 4. Interjections for attention These types of interjections refer to draw attention of someone like – look, behold, listen, hush etc. As – Look! I do not have any time to waste. Behold! Someone strange is standing there. Here, Look! and Behold! are the examples of interjections of attention. 5. Interjections for surprise These types of interjections refer to express the strong sense of surprise about something that has happened like – ha, what, hey, ah, oh, eh etc. As – What! I can’t believe that. Oh! How did you get hurt? Here, What! and Oh! are the examples of interjections of surprise. 6. Interjections for sorrow These types of interjections refer to express the emotion of sadness about something unfortunate has happened like – alas, ouch, ah, oh etc. As – Alas! I am undone. Ouch! That really hurts. Here, Alas! and Ouch! are the examples of interjections of sorrow. 7. Interjections for understanding/misunderstanding Interjections of understanding and misunderstanding refer to one’s understanding of a subject being talked about or something which wasn’t well understood before the moment or misunderstood. As – Oh! I did not get it. So! This is the way we should do it. Here, Oh! and So! are the examples of interjections of understanding and misunderstanding. There are some other Interjections like – Interjections of Anger/Annoyance/Frustration/Disappointment/Dismissive etc which are more or less similar to the other categories of interjection. Summary An interjection is a word used to express emotion. One particular interjection can be used in different ways in different situation. There are many kinds of interjections. However, all of them are used to express emotion or feeling. Interjections are very interesting to learn and use to explain feelings. Unit-1 Page 22 BBA Program EXERCISE 1. What is ‘Parts of Speech’? Write down the kinds of ‘Parts of Speech’ along with definitions and examples. 2. What is ‘Verb’? Write down the classification of Verbs along with examples. 3. Find out the parts of speech: a) I have learned many things from my mother. b) My mother is a learned person. c) I know him personally. d) He is a friendly person. e) He behaves in a friendly manner. f) Why don’t you go there? g) The book is on the table. h) I want to get a permanent job. i) Well, I don’t think it can be done in this way. j) I called him, but he did not reply. 4. Write down the correct answer: a) ‘Water’ is a part of speech. i) Yes ii) No iii) May be iv) Can be b) How many parts of speech are there? i) 10 ii) 9 iii) 8 iv) 5 c) Ritu is a good girl. In this sentence ‘is’ is a/an – i) Noun ii) Main verb iii) Auxiliary Verb iv) Pronoun d) Rabbits run fast. – Who is the adverb in this sentence? i) Rabbits ii) Run iii) Fast iv) None e) Your mother is calling you. Here ‘mother’ is a/an – i) Noun ii) Pronoun iii) Verb iv) Adverb f) “Although” is a/an – i) Coordinating conjunction ii) Subordinating conjunction iii) Correlative conjunction Unit-1 Page 23  General English (Parts of Speech) iv) Interjection g) “Each other” is a – i) Personal Pronoun ii) Reflexive Pronoun iii) Reciprocal Pronoun iv) Relative pronoun h) Walking is a good exercise. Here ‘walking’ is a – i) Noun ii) Verb iii) Pronoun iv) Main verb i) I am wearing washed clothes. Here ‘washed’ is a/an – i) Adverb ii) Verb iii) Adjective iv) Main verb j) We should obey our teachers. Here ‘should’ is a/an – i) Intransitive Verb ii) Main Verb iii) Transitive Verb iv) Modal/ Auxiliary Verb 3. Answer: a) Verb b) Adjective c) Pronoun d) Adjective e) Adverb f) Verb g) Preposition h) Noun. i) Interjection j) Conjunction 4. Answer: a) Yes b) 8 c) Main Verb d) Fast e) Noun f) Subordinating conjunction g) Reciprocal Pronoun h) Noun i) Adjective j) Modal/ Auxiliary Unit-1 Page 24  "l. ~,.... ~( w U Z U.J oc( OC z U.J oc :r LL " ::; --:"'f --1 1-­ LL ~:.---- _ _ _..:;c  r ~J Phrases, Clauses and Sentences 9. Computers very useful. 10. Oid the dog catch 7 1 ,. The coffee cup was. 12. He often seemed. SEn le n;ce fun e ti {) n s a n d P (3 rt s o 'f SpEBCh m Rewrite the above sentences, filling the empty function slots with some suitable word or words. Parts of Spe:ech m Write two sentences in English corresponding to each of the following sentence frameworks. Words in a language can be grouped into different c1asses Oeclarative sentences: according to how they are used grammatically. These word­ subject + verb classes are known as parts of speech. subject + verb + adverbial subject + verb + direct object The nine main parts of speech in English are: ((: Grammar Hel p~) subject + verb + direct object + adverbial subject + verb + indirect object + direct object noun, for example book, cat, stone, truth, beauty, warmth, Yes and no are opinion, Singapore, Tom traditionally classed subject + verb + complement either as pronoun, for example 1, me, you, myself, themselves, this, interjections or as subject + verb + complement + adverbial those, hers adverbs, but in Imperative sentences: verb, for example sit, run, eat, thin!. /\ \ Phrases and their 1 adjectives denoting colour (for example black, brown, red, The words that precede a noun or pronoun in a noun white, etc): phrase follow a certain order. a beautiful old cal' la In first position in noun phrases come the predeterminers, a pretty new blue dress determiners, quantifiers and numerals, in that order: CGrammar Help> 3 To the right again come participles (for example broken, Participles are the 5he was carrying severallarge black books. cut, laughing, singing, woven, etc), sometimes preceding parts of verbs used Who owns those two cars 7 and sometimes following the colour adjectives: to form the They own both these big yachts. continuous tenses a strange carved idol and the perfect a lovely green woven scarf OR a lovely woven green scarf tenses: Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc, and also last) I arn going harne. come before cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc): (present partieiple) ~(Grammar Help:') We were singing /aud/y. the first six contestants (present partieiple) the last two riden Many adjectives in English end in -ing and -ed, such as disturbing, They have mended the vase. (past partieiple) interesting, surprising, frightened, offended, relieved, surprised, worried, and therefore look like participles. (In fact, in origin they were participles.) ~ After this group of words come the adjectives and other Such adjectives are found in the 'general adjective' position in the noun descriptive words. phrase, not the participle position: an interesting o/d rusting gate NOT an o/d rusting interesting gate It is important to note that the order of adjectives in a noun a frightened YOLlnfj escaped prisaner NOT el YOLlng escaped frightened prisoner phrase is not entirely free. Certain categories of adjective must always precede or follow others within the phrase: 4 To the right again come adjectives denoting countries, a big green cal' NOT a green big cal' peoples, tribes, and so on, for example Californian, an old Russian cal' NOT a Russian old cal' French, )apanese, Roman, etc: 1 Closest to the determiners, etc come the general descriptive an excel!ent French wine adjectives: a little japanese dol! a disturbing outlook on life 5 Nearest to the head of the phrase stand: an amazing coincidence a beautiful tapestry adjectives and nouns that describe what the substance an urgent telephone cal! is made out of or what it resembles (for example brass, cardboard, iron, leather, metal, paper, steel, stone, ~Grammar Help~ wooden, woollen, etc): When there are two or more descriptive adjectives of this type in a noun a brass band phrase, there are certain tendencies with regard to order that are worth noting. a long iron rod For example, nice tends to come at the beginning of the group: a strange Celtic stone carving a nice comfortable house NOT a cornfortab/e nice house adjectives that mean 'relating to - ' (for example atomic, Adjectives expressing opinions usually precede adjectives expressing facts: a beautiful big house NOT a big beautifu/ house ('beautiful' expresses an biological, criminal, historical, medical, moral, opinion, 'big' states a faet) philosophical, political, social, etc) Adjectives denoting size usually precede adjectives denoting shape: [ 47 ].D a new medical centre a small square box NOT a square srna// box J.a rll"d~t:~, LldU~t:~ dllU Functions Sentences an important social gathering 2 Another type consists of a direct object or complement plus a boring polítical speech a participle: nouns being used descriptively (for example church, man-eating sharks (= sharks that eat people) school, etc), and other words that most closely define a good-Iooking boy (= a boy who looks good) what the noun refers to: labour-saving devices a small church choir 3 A third category of modifying phrase is the prepositional phrase: a national economic recovery plan a school choir an on-top-of-the-world feeling a rather over-the-top suggestion Putting all the above rules of word arder together, we can see that the following noun phrase is grammatically correct 4 There are many other types of phrase that can modify nouns: (though highly unlikely!): a four-page essay ( Handy Hi nt ) both the first two nice interesting small round old black rusting a month-Iong wait Hyphenation is often French steel atomic reactors four-day-old chicks very im portant for a fifty-pence piece making your meaninc Many of the adjectives in such a phrase could, of course, be clear. a human-rights activist modified by an adverb, so instead of adjectives we would mouth-to-mouth resuscitation Compare the have adjective phrases, but still in the same arder (and following sentences: notice that in arder to make the structure of the noun phrase a one-woman show four day-old chicks (= clearer, it is helpful to insert commas after every adjective an after-dinner speech four chicks that are a day old) phrase): a world-famous composer four-day·old chicks (~ ten-pin bowling chicks that are four both the first two very nice, extremely interesting, quite small, days old) fairly rounc/, rather o/d, depressingly black, badly rusting, a hit-and-run accident There were thirty-odd typically French, steel atomic reactors a make-or-break situation people al the meeting. (= about thirty people) an out-of-the-body experience Other examples of noun phrases with a number of There were thirty oda people at the meeting. descriptive phrases are: (= thirty str"ange (:spell i ng He 1 ~§ people) the last four new blue Cerman plastic model aeroplanes I Note that in all these phrases that modify following nouns 01" noun phrases, the next great British girl pop group ¡ the words are linked by hyphens: I a bad·tempered old man : a three-inch steel pin , a never·to-be·forgotten experience Other types of adjectival phrase can modify a following out-of-date equipment noun in a noun phrase. Phrases of the -ed and -ín9 type are also hyphenated when used predicatively (that ¡s, in complements): He was very bad·tempered this morning. 1 One common type of phrase that modifies a following noun He's very good-Iooking, isn't he? or noun phrase has the general structure adjective + noun Other types of phrase are generally not hyphenated in complements: + -ed: The equipment was completely out of date. His suggestions were rather over the topo a bad-tempered old man (= aman who has abad temper) It was an expel'ience that was never to be forgotten. I a four-Iegged animal (= an animal that has four legs) ! Words of the adjective + noun +-ed type that are very well established as a good-natured laugh compounds may be written as a single word rather than with a hyphen: ~. a blonde-haired, blue-eyed little girl , Sue's so bigheaded l cm» L How could you be so hardhearted? ~ [ 48 ]  rases, Clauses and ;'~'1tences Phrases and rheir Funcrions E:tJ:ensioi15 of tne Noun Phrase.~ A noun phrase may also function as an indirect object: I gave the old beggar money for a cup of tea. A noun or pronoun may be modified by a following word or Tom took his wife sorne flowers. phrase. I've lent your brother my caro She promised her children a trip to the zoo. ¡>.... G H 1;:) 1II A noun or pronoun may be modified by a following adjective. ~ rammar e p.. or a d "· ljectlve p h rase: ~ Noun phrases may be subject-complements:.n adjective that +f)/Iows the nou n it AII the people i:oncerned have been informed of the change John is a gifted teacher. ,rlodifies is called a of plan. That's a very good idea. ost positive The rain was a great relief. adjective. The president eJect will be addressing the meeting. I She'll make him a good wife. Those present knew that something important was happening. Or object-complements: ;¡'I I need something even sJ.rongeY. A noun or pronoun may be modified by a following I i We consider John a very good teacher. They've elected me chairman. prepositional phrase: ¡ He made her his personal assistant. I see the house on the corner has been sold. We named our daughter Elizabeth. Her husband is a tall man with long black hair. ,r :zl A noun phrase may often function as an adverbial, for :1 Nouns may equally be followed by complements (see example saving when or how something is done: page 76): 1'11 see you tomorrow night. What a beautiful vase of flowers' i Next year we'll do things differently. I There was a sudden gust of wind. 1'11 show you how to fix it. You do it this way. Do you realize the absurdity of our position 7 I don't understand her enthusiasm (or stamp-collecting. I ,] A noun phrase may be the complement (or object) of a preposition in a prepositional phrase: A bird's life involves a constant search forIood. I had the satisfaction of doing something useful. I ¡ ¡ You're in great danger. They had grasped the impossibility of escaping from the isJand. They watched the river level rising wjtlJ growing alarm. Do stop scraping your knife and fork 061 your plate. Functions of Noun Phrases 8'lI And final/y, a noun phrase can modify an adjective or ;¡JI Like nouns, noun phrases may fill the subject slot in a sentence: adverb, in the same way that an adverb does: More heavy rain is expected later. She is feeling a good deal better today, thank YOU. A rather fat, middle-aged man was staring at her. It was a lot 'Noyse than I had expected. The entire male population of the vil/age was in love with her. I'm not the least bit worried about where she is. A noun phrase may occupy the direct object slot in a sentence: The old lady was wearing a thick woollen coat. I don't much like modern pop music. The waiter brought two glasses of beer. [ 49 ] -:a ,- 111 0'>'-='>, "-Iau.>,-=.> 0.11"'" Sentences Functions ~':D¿{di~~~iir.se~iF. - -.... " ~~~~~~~}~~~·d~::-~ (TI Pick out the main clauses and subordinate clauses in the following sentences: Handy Hint _._0' 00 Divide the following sentences into the clauses that form them. l. I could see that she was worried. Remember that, for 2. As I drove towards his house, I was hoping that he would be out. the purposes of 1. It's olle o'clock and we should be on our way by now. 3. 1'11 come whenever I can. sentence division, a conjunction is 2. I don't like him but 1'11 give him my support. 4. Do you know what she did whell I told her what you'd said 7 considered to be 3. He put his hand on her arm and said nothing. c; \.vr~1 r1on't \'le h::'.'e 2 Ci}~ [lf t:'~ v··hile we're waiting 7 pan of the clause that follows it. 4. You go round to the back of the house and take a look and "/1 6. 1 don't know whether we should be doing this. try the front door again. 7. The children laughed at the antics of the clowns. 5. It's Saturday so I needn't get up so early. 8. The children laughed as the clowns poured water over each 6. I've tried and I've tried but J've never managed it. other. 7. She both loves him and hates him. 9. Stay whcre you are until I come. 8. The government promised reforms but has done nothing. 10. If you go, I will go too. 1 1. Whenever I run, my leg hurts. 12. 1 didn't like what 1 was doing but 1 had no choice. C'IDE 1 CID Describe the functions (subject, direct object, adverbial, etc) of the subordinate clauses in the above sentences. ~ J ~~ [ 68 ]  Clauses and their Functions ~~r:t!~Et;~?:SZLit~5T~:i:ii:1;5Il~?~~~:;:;1 You'd be surprised at the number of children in this school whose parents are divorced. ~ , - ,-, ReJ-atJu€ []auses The conjunctions where, when and why can also be used to form relative clauses whose antecedents are nouns referring to places, times and causes respectively: I often walk past the house where I was born. 00 you remember that time when you fel! into the swimming pool? Gramma r He1 p.:> Relativ2 CJa:us-es 1 don't remember the reason why 1 went there. Relative clauses are ~.metimes called A relative c1ause is a subordinate clause that identifies ,-ljectival c1auses someone or something or provides information about them, ~~ Gramma r He1p:J) t..,ócause, like When referring to people, the relative pronouns to use are who, whom, 'jectives, they whose and that: identify or describe A mole is an animal that Uves underground. the man who spoke OR the man that spoke ('Who' is preferred as a subject , ,uns. We were driving along a rough jungle track that was never pronoun, though both are correct.) meant (or cars. the man whom I saw OR the man that I saw ('That' is preferred as an object pronoun, though both are correct.) Patrons who arrive late may not be admitted to the concert. the man whose son is an MP A psychiatrist is a doctor who treats disorders o( the mind, the man to whom I spoke He was aman whose qreatest pleasure was lookinq a(ter When referring to animals or things, the pronouns to use are which, rhar his garden. and whose: She was someone on whom you could always re/y. the cat wJ!iciJ was :;illin"j on the mat OR lhe uil Chat was sirting on the mat the book which I mentioned OR the book that I mentioned That is an option which / have always rejet:ted. che buok whose cover was torn el book ro which I often refer This is a list of people who were abducted by the terrorists and about whose (ate nothinq is yet known. When referring to things, you can use of which instead of whose: a book the cover of which was 10m.::1 The noun, pronoun, phrase or clause that is identified, :"-rammar Hel p:J) described or commented on by the relative clause is called r r a verb in a the antecedent /Lmu'si:d;:mt/: :.:3 The relative pronouns who/whom, which and that can relative clause, it is generally be omitted: , :; antecedent that Voters whose names begin with the letters M to Z should go to rnakes the verb Room 2. Have Y0L! still got the book / qave you? (= the book that I gave ;).,lgular or plural: That photo is a reminder of someone who was very important you) e boy who was to me. 15 that the man you saw? (= the man that you saw) plaving outside is mv Hands up everyone who would like a drink. 1. 15 that the man you were speaking t0 7 (= the man that you T~e boys who were A mole is an animal that lives underground. were speaking to, or the man to whom you were speaking) , ¡ying outside are mv sonso He was accused of beinq drunk in charqe o( a vehicle, Who was the girl / saw you with last night 7 vvnere is the book that which is a serious offence. She was someone you could a/ways rely on. here on the table? ''''15 '.-Vhere are the books JI The word that links the relative clause to its antecedent is a That is an option / have always rejected. 11 were here on the rela tive pronolJn. The words that, which, who, whom and tuble 7 But ifthey are the subject of the clause, they cannot be omitted: whose are relative pronouns: A mole is an animal that lives underground. that the man who saw you 7 15 I have a friend who once sailed across the Pacific in a smal! yacht. [ 69 ] that the man who was speakinq to James 7 15 L.J You're starting down a path which can only lead to unhappiness. Who was the girl who was with you last niqht? OD ,,_l  Phrases, C1auses and Sentences 1. 0 :'" Clauses and lheir Functions ', and whoever may mean' the person who... ', 'anyone c::::: Grammar Hel P> 1 that who ' or 'everyone who oo.': eE:Grammar HelP:¡ I Strictly speaking, who is a subject pronoun and whom an object pronoun, comparable to he and him, rheyand rhem, etc: What I want ro know is where she hid the money. (= the thing In this unit we are the man who was there (compare 'he was there') that I want to know... ) looki ng at these the man whom 1 saw (compare '1 saw him') clauses as a type of I'm throwing all these old dresses out. You can keep whatever relative clause; in However, whom is nowadays used only in rather formal English. In you want. (=... anything that you want) Unit 20 (on Noun everyday speech and writing whom is generally replaced by who: Ciauses), we shall the man who 1 saw You can have either of these cakes. Take whichever you want. look at them again, the man who you were speaking ro (=... the one that you want) to sée how they Whom cannot be replaced by who when it immediately follows a Whoever said that must be erazy! (= the person who said behave like nouns. preposition (but again, this is really only found in formal language): that... ) the man ro whom you were speaking They elected Smith chairman, rhan whom there could have been no better choice. I'm very grateful to whoever found my keys and handed them In to the police. (=... to the person who found my keys... ) ;; Notice that the relative pronoun may not always be the first What, whatever and whichever can al so be used as determiners word in its clause. Sometimes it is preceded by a in nominal relative clauses, that is, they can be followed by a preposition: noun or a pronoun: the man ro whom you were speaking The villagers took what possessions they could carry with them when they fled into the foresto (=... took all the a Job for which I was paid handsomely possessions that they could carry... ) the hammer with which rhe woman was bludgeoned ro dearh They built shelters in the forest with whatever suitable materials they couiá (ind. (=... with anything suitable that And the pronoun may be preceded by both a preposition they could find) and also a word such as sorne, severa!, al!, both, most, etc or a number: Take whichever one you like. (=... the one that you like) The men, borh of whom are lorry-drivers, were charged with theft. Restt'ictl"e a.na ¡'¿Ü'ít'l"'estrfctfvE. ReraUve C[é'tuse.s She was attacked by a group of boys, most of whom were in their teens. Relative clauses that identify, pick out ordescribe a He has a large collection of photographs, some of which are particular person or thing are called restrictive or defining very old. relative clauses. I bought half a dozen eggs, four of which were broken by the time 1 got home. Have you still go't the book I gave you? (This identifies one particular book.) ([)id You Kno~?) Nominal Re!ative Clauses I have a neighbour who comes from Italy. (This identifies one particular neighbour.) 'Nominal' means 'Iike In so me relative clauses, the relative pronoun does not fol!ow a noun', an antecedent but in a sense inc!udes the antecedent in itself. Who is that man you were talking t0 7 (This identifies a particular man.) A nominal relative This applies to what, whatever, whichever and whoever. cJause is a 'noun­ He's engaged to a girl who's the daughter of an MP. like' relative clause, As pronouns, for example, what, whatever and whichever may mean 'the thing that... ', 'anything that... ' or 'everything ~ ~ mi [ 70 ]  -- --T-------­ C/auses and their ~.. rases, Clauses and Functions 1tences I T;:I"'7 t as a SJJbordirL3tj n9 CO:njlJ]1 c"tJOIJ andas a }~-~].ative Relative clauses whose purpose is not to identify a particular Pr;onoun person or thing but simply to provide so me further information about them are called non-restrictive or non- That can be both a subordinating conjunction and a relative defining relative clauses. pronoun. There are, however, several ways of distinguishing between the two uses of the word: