Grade 12 Geography Past Paper PDF

Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Therefore, equipping students with contemporary skills and technologies enables them to investigate and understand the following issues: 6 Dynamics of spatial and non-spatial characteristics of physical and human environment, 6...

Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Therefore, equipping students with contemporary skills and technologies enables them to investigate and understand the following issues: 6 Dynamics of spatial and non-spatial characteristics of physical and human environment, 6 Interaction and interdependence between people and their environment, and 6 The causes and effects of a wide range of ecological, cultural, social, and temporal dynamics. Learners of geography can address these issues by using skill of making of small research on their localities with some basic tools. The newest skill and technology of map making or GIS also helps to locate their place and navigate some routes in their research project. This unit will, thus, enable learners to develop the abilities and attitudes pertaining to basic research method so that they become the future researchers in the field. Furthermore, it introduces students to one of the 21st century skills and technology of map making that we refer to as GIS and remote sensing. 8.1. Fundamentals of research in Geography At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ explain the notion of research; and „ identify the main components that help to understand the concept of research in Geography. KEY TERMS: Research; research method; scientific enquiries; objective search Brainstorming Activity 8.1 1. How do you explain the meaning of research? 2. Have you ever tried to do some re- search in your class? Research is the process of using a collection of skills and knowledge that you have acquired to take the most in-depth look at a problem you are confronted with. But does research have a universal meaning? The answer to this question seems NO. Different writers particularly in the field of geography define research differently while the following main elements are the most common components used to define the concept research: 6 An inquiry to obtain dependable and useful information, 6 a scientific approach to study a problem, and 6 a systematic and objective search for reliable knowledge. 217 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Therefore, one could define research as a scientific method of seeking a solution for the problems identified. It is basically a systematic inquiry into causes or the discovery of new facts through planned and organized effort that requires time, money and skill. Generally, research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic methods of finding solutions to problems. Figure 8.1. A diagram showing research as target-full work linking various tools, expertise and peoples view with various perspective and method to approach the given problem. Figure 8.1. Social Research 8.1.1. The Purpose of Undertaking Research At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ identify the significance of research in addressing the environmental and socio- economic issues. KEY WORDS: exploration; explanation; description; understanding Brainstorming Activity 8.2 1. Why do we conduct research? Governments and private companies have been investing huge amount of money for conduct- ing research to meet their own purpose. As developed countries have investing vast resources for research, they are proving to be sources of new knowledge and innovation. Research capability and the extent to which this capability is directed into action are two significant variables that influence a country's development. As sometimes good researches don't always reach their intended audience, it's critical to make researches accessible to the appropriate institutions, among other things, so that they may be used to take action. 218  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making In general, most professional researchers base their research upon the following five main motivations: Exploration: includes investigating little understood phenomena, identify/ discover important variables, generate questions for further research, etc. Explanation: includes explaining why forces created the phenomenon in question, identifying why the phenomenon is shaped as it is. Description: includes documenting and characterizing the phenomenon of interest. Understanding: includes comprehending processes and interaction of phenomenon and people. Prediction: includes predicting future outcomes for the phenomenon and forecast the events and behaviors resulting from the phenomenon. Reflective Activity 8.1 1. Discuss the main elements that make a re- search report different from other news and fiction written in books and journals. 2. Can you elaborate the contribution of a certain research for science and applied ac- tions? Please use some reference books or the internet to get the material. 8.1.2. Features of a Geographic Research At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ elaborate the typical nature of geographic research ; and „ compare the characteristics of geographic research with other subjects. KEY TERMS: theoretical paradigms, geographical inquiries, spatial distribution, formation of patterns Geography as a subject provides a conceptual and practical overview of the diverse research methods for learners. The techniques that geographers use in their work are not developed in a vacuum. They are developed to address specific problems and, thus, reflect the focus of the discipline at particular times. These techniques reflect the conscious decisions of geographers about the kinds of information that are important to collect; the spatial scales at which information should be collected, compiled, analyzed, and displayed; data sampling strategies and experimental designs; data representation; and methods for data analysis. The methodologies for empirical research vary as theoretical perspectives shift. Thus, advancement of the discipline goes hand in hand with the development of new and improved techniques for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information. 219 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Geographers undertake research for all the reasons/ motivations mentioned above often in combination with each other. For instance, in your study, you may start with some exploratory investigations to determine which variables or factors are important. Next, you might try to describe the phenomena and how they are related. You may follow this by seeking to explain what caused the phenomena, and to make a prediction about future outcomes. for example, if we were interested to investigate why people migrate to a new and relatively unknown area, the four approaches could be linked in the following way: Explore why people might want to relocate from their current location to a new one, Describe the patterns of migration based upon the factors found during exploration, Explain the patterns of migration identified when describing the exploratory factors, and predict possible future migrations based upon the explanations of current Any research project has the following three components: A subject matter (what is being studied?), Methodology or Approach (how it is being studied), and Philosophical bases (ontology, epistemology...). The whole procedure of your research job is determined by your geographic knowledge. Geography is one of the few subjects that may easily link the social sciences, biophysical sciences, and humanities. Though various definitions exist, Geography can be regarded as a science concerned with the rational development, and testing of theories that attempt to explain and predict the spatial distribution and location of various characteristics on the surface of the earth. For geographers, research is the process of trying to gain a better understanding of the relationships between humans, space, place and environment which leads them use scientific methods. Geography has a long history of research that spans to 2000 years. It has always welcomed new technology, research methodologies, teaching methods, skills, and material as a scientific subject. The scope and technique of geography have developed over time as a result of technological advancements and the accumulation of knowledge. Traditionally, geographical research is related to the locations of places and people. In the eighteenth century, geography’s focus shifted to the physical and human characteristics of places in our world. In the mid- twentieth century, geographical research focused mainly on: ¿ The spatial distributions of phenomena and things, ¿ The resulting patterns and interactions, and ¿ The forces responsible for the formation of the patterns. 220  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Teaching geography is all about getting students to grasp today's concerns, such as population, land use, urban, economic, and health problems, as well as natural hazards. The 21st C teaching geography requires scoping, systems thinking (such as climate, watersheds, and energy systems), and critical thinking. Geographical studies, thus, have recently begun to address environmental concerns such as hunger, global warming, poverty, and the long-term evolution of our ecosystem. Changes in the discipline's tools and techniques have firmly positioned geography in the space era on a worldwide scale. At the personal level, the smartphone and global positioning system (GPS) have proven to be significant academic drivers and active players in the digital revolution. Geographers continue to adjust their perspectives on the world by employing both conventional and newly emerging technologies, such as mapping and GIS, respectively. 8.1.3. Research Approach and Methodology At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ distinguish the difference and similarity between research approach, methodolo- gy and method; and „ differentiate between qualitative and quantitative methods. KEY WORDS: research approaches, research method and methodology, qualitative and quantitative approach Brainstorming Activity 8.3 1. What is the difference between research approach, methodology and method? Figure 8.2. Research methods as the different ways to reach the intended target and the way of integrating diverse tools and sources 221 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE a. Research approaches The general way of treating a certain research problem is referred to as a research approach. Basically, research approaches are classified as quantitative and qualitative. Some literature may add a third alternative called mixed research approach. The following subsections discuss these three different approaches. Quantitative approach Quantitative research includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discrete numerical or quantifiable data, and data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process). That means, we use the quantitative approach when trying to verify a given geographical theory. We translate the concepts of the theory into variables that can be measured with statistical techniques. The benefit of this method is that the quantitative technique used by one researcher may be utilized by another researcher for other purposes or to expand on the same data. Figure 8.3 quantitative data representation are more of numeric Examples of issues that show the application of this approach have been given as follows: Temperature decreases as one travels from lowland to highland areas; Land value increases as one moves from city periphery to the city center. These examples basically discover the difference in variables that occur as a function of altitude and distance measured from a designated place for example, from lowland to highland and from periphery to the city core. 222  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Thus, elevation and distance are the variables that determine the changing spatial patterns of temperature and land value, respectively. The major subdivisions of quantitative research approach have been presented below. ¿ Statistical/Correlational Analysis, ¿ Experimental, and ¿ Quasi-Experimental. Qualitative Approach A qualitative research is concerned with methods, procedures, and measurements that do not yield discrete numerical data. It involves extensive descriptive data in order to gain insights into phenomena. Data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of verbal synthesis (inductive process). This method does not examine any already held theories or hypotheses. There are no quantitative approaches used. As a result, other researchers will be unable to replicate the findings. Data are utilized to explain a new hypothesis in the qualitative method. Some of the major types of qualitative research approaches include the following: 6 Historical/Narrative research, 6 Ethnographic research, 6 Case study, 6 Action research. Mixed Methods Research In the actual world, the data types that our study deals with are interlinked and difficult to separate. There are also a number of social and environmental issues, all of which are complexly interrelated. Therefore, the third research strategy is being developed in modern research activities. That is a mixed research approach. Mixed methods research is research in which quantitative and qualitative techniques are mixed in a single study. It is the third major research paradigm/perspective, adding an alternative (when it is appropriate) to quantitative and qualitative research approaches. According to proponents of the method, the following two elements should be considered while using the mixed research approach. 6 The issue of harmony and the idea of how quantitative and qualitative methods are interrelated to use both in a single research. 6 Flexible outlook that researchers should use the approach or mixture of approaches that works the best in a real world situation. 223 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE b. Research method and methodology The terms research method and research methodology are interchangeable, although they have difference in terms of scope. A research work is mostly an investigation of a problem. The researcher's motivation might stem from his or her curiosity as well as a clear objective to solve the challenge. However, the use of research results as a guide is required in many business, social, intellectual, and other issues. Research methods fundamentally include all those techniques/methods that are adopted for conducting research. Some of the main methods incorporated in the research works are: 6 The collection and organization of data necessary or related to the problem, 6 The use of statistical parameters to treat and interpret the organized data, and 6 The evaluation of the accuracy of the result obtained. Research methodology, on the other hand, refers to a way of systematically solving the research problem. It is a science of studying how research is conducted scientifically. Thus, the concept of research methodology is much broader than the method and it considers: Þ Why the study is undertaken (its significance at various levels); Þ How the research problem is identified; Þ What assumptions or hypotheses are formulated; Þ What type of data are collected; and Þ Why a particular method or technique of analyzing the data is chosen. In short, research methodology has wider dimensions than research method or technique. It is the philosophy or logic behind the research. Study of basic geographic research methodology is therefore expected to give you knowledge and skills in areas indicated below: ¿ Gathering materials and data, and arranging them, ¿ Participating in field work, ¿ Preparing questionnaires, interviews etc., ¿ Using statistical techniques, and ¿ Interpreting and reporting results of the study that you have designed or proposed. C. Research Design The development of a research project design, also known as "Research Design," is a difficult undertaking that follows the job of defining the research problem. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. 224  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making A research design is an arrangement of circumstances for data collection and analysis that combines the relevance, study goal and procedural efficiency. In reality, the research design is the conceptual framework for doing research, and it serves as the blueprint for data collection, measurement, and analysis. That is, the study design reflects a flowchart of what the researcher would do, from hypothesis development through operational implications and data analysis. A research design must, at least, contain: A clear statement of the research problem; Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; The population to be studied; and Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data. Reflective Activity 8.2 Organize yourselves into smaller groups to under- take a collaborative learning on approaches and methods of geographical research. Using Encarta or Internet or other possibly acces- sible materials, conduct a group discussion on the different concepts related to research technique and methodology. 1. Elaborate the different research ap- proaches, and write some examples illustrating local problems observed around your school or home area. 8.1.4. Basic Elements of a Research At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ identify the major elements of research and the information they contain. KEY TERMS: Background of the study, statement of the problem, literature review, conclusion and recommendation. The research process consists of a number of closely related activities necessary to effectively carry out a research. The diagram below depicts the major components of a research project, the information that they manage and the process. 225 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Figure 8.4. Components of Research Project Research Problem: Identification and Formulation This involves the identification of a general topic and formulating it into a specific research problem. It requires a thorough understanding of the problem and rephrasing it in meaningful terms from analytical point of view. The understanding of the problem needs: 6 Discussions with colleagues or experts in the field (brainstorming); and 6 Examining conceptual and empirical literature on the topic. Problem Statement: The problem statement describes the context for the study, and it also identifies the general analysis approach. Some of the important sources of research problem are: Professional experience the researcher’s own experiences in the field; 226  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Þ Inference from theory; Þ Professional literature reports, bibliographies of books, and articles, periodicals, abstracts, etc.; Þ Technical and social changes - new developments may bring forth new problems for research. Objectives The objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study. Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. The general objective of a study states what researchers expect to achieve by the study in general terms. It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general objective into smaller, logically connected parts. These are normally referred to as specific objectives. Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem. They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose. The formulation of objectives will help to: 6 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials); 6 Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you have identified; and 6 Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases. Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development of your research meth- odology, and will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data. Research Questions Research question may be drawn from the statement of the problem. The purpose of the research question is to make the research focused. Thus, it points a research study in a particular direction. A good question should have the following attributes. „ It is stated as a question, „ It is specific, „ It includes key terms and / or variables to be investigated, „ It can be operationalized, and „ It is written in a simple and precise form. 227 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Literature Review The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what is al- ready known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive, it needs to show how your work will benefit the whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what has been done in the area by others, and set the stage for your work. It should probably move from the more general to the more focused studies;it need not be exhaustive, but has to be relevant. Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most scholars prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature. The literature review serves several important functions, for instance, it: Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel". Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research. Preparing the Research Design After formulating the research problem, you prepare a research design. The research design is the conceptual framework within which the research could be conducted. It helps you collect related evidence. It also helps you to limit required time, effort and expense. The what, where, when, how much, and by what means of your research project and its subject are answered by a research design. Determining the sample Conducting a study on the entire population is tough, and our project may be too vast to be feasible. The population refers to the total group of people with whom the study will be conducted. Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study. Usually, the population is too large for the researchers to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. Sampling methods are classified as either probability or non-probability. 228  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’ in which each member of the population has a known probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling and clustered sampling. Non probability sampling: Here members are selected from the population in some non- probability manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling and snow ball sampling. Data Collection Data collection is a time-consuming and costly part of the research process. There are two basic sources of data, these are primary and secondary source. Primary Data source: A primary data source is an original data source, that is, one in which the data are collected firsthand by the researcher for a specific research purpose or project. This type of data collection is original in character. The research produces the data, rather than relying on existing data. There are several ways of collecting primary data. Experimental data, Survey questionnaires, Interview, Personal observations, Focus group discussions, Satellite imageries, metrological data. Secondary data source: Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those of our particular research study. For example, if a government department has conducted a survey of, say, family food expenditures, and then a food manufacturer might use this data in the organization’s evaluations of the total potential market for a new product. Similarly, statistics prepared by a ministry on agricultural production will prove useful to a whole host of people and organizations, including those marketing agricultural supplies. Some of the secondary data could be grouped as published and unpublished: The Published data source include: Þ Publications by governments and NGOs Þ Journals Þ Magazines and newspapers Þ Reports by universities, scholars, etc. 229 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Unpublished data include: ¿ Diaries ¿ Letters ¿ Unpublished biographies, etc. Data analysis and interpretation The methods used to analyze data will depend on the type of research, qualitative or quantitative research, which is again influenced by personal and methodological preference and educational background. For quantitative data analysis, issues of validity and reliability are important. Thus, the researcher must make sure that their measurements are stable and consistent and that there are no errors or bias present. For quantitative data, the analysis can be left until the end of the data collection process. For qualitative data, the researcher might analyze as the research progresses, continually refining and reorganizing in light of the emerging results. It is useful to produce an interview summary form or a focus group summary form which you complete as soon as possible after each interview or focus group has taken place. This includes practical details about the time and place, the participants, the duration of the interview or focus group, and details about the content and emerging themes. The method you use will depend on: Your research topic, your personal preferences, and the availability of time, equipment and finances. Results The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs. The following are some of the guidelines useful for presenting the results of a study: Þ Mention negative as well as positive results. Þ Do not interpret results - save that for the discussion. Þ Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences and construct their own explanations. Break up your results into logical segments by using subheads Discussion The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and caveats: 6 What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations.) 230  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making 6 What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results? 6 What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations? 6 What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting pre- dictions? 6 Is there agreement or disagreement with previous works or studies? 6 Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction: ¿ What is the relationship of the present results to the original question? ¿ What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or understand before the present work? 6 Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation. 6 What is the significance of the present results: why should we care? Conclusions What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations? If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about your findings? The following are a few guides for writing this part: 6 Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this investigation; 6 Summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work; and 6 Include the broader implications of your results; Recommendations This section may include remedial action to solve the problem; further research to fill in gaps in our understanding; and directions for future investigations on this or related topics. That means, the recommendations you make in your research paper are critical to the strategies you have in place to further your field of study. 8.2. GIS Data and Map Making using GIS At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ construct statistical diagrams using generated data from various sources; „ make administrative, topographic, and watershed maps; and „ interpret different type of maps. KEY TERMS: digital data processing, GIS, Geo-data base, mapping skills 231 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Brainstorming Activity 8.4 1. Can you recall the definitions of geospatial information or GIS you learned in previous grades? In grades 10 and 11 you have learned about the basics of Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS is a tool for capturing, storing, manipulating, analyzing, managing, and presenting various forms of geographic data. This technology's essential term is geography, which indicates that the main part of the data is spatial. That is to say, the information used in it is linked to a specific location. Just as we use a word processor to write documents and deal with words on a computer, we can use a GIS application to deal with spatial information on a computer. As indicated above the acronym GIS stands for 'Geographical Information System'. It consists of the following basic elements: „ Digital Data – the geographical information that you will view and analyze using computer hardware and software. „ Computer Hardware – computers used for storing data, displaying graphics and processing data. „ Computer Software – computer programs that run on the computer hardware and allow you to work with digital data. A software program that forms part of the GIS is called a GIS Application. With a GIS application you can open digital maps on your computer, create new spatial information to add to a map, create printed maps customized to your needs and perform spatial analysis. Case study Let's look at a simple example as to how GIS can be useful. Imagine you are a health worker and you make a note of the date and place of residence of every patient you treat. You may use GPS measurements to help your reporting and make your patient's location more specific for your super- visor or substitute worker. As the continuation of your previous grade lessons, the following sections discuss the GIS data type and use, and the method of data analysis. 232  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making 8.2.1. Gathering Data for GIS At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ identify the major source of GIS data; „ explain the different ways of data representation and its effect on map interpre- tation; and „ construct statistical diagrams using data from various sources. KEY TERMS: spatial data, map data generalization, measurement scale, Map data dimensionality. Brainstorming Activity 8.5 1. Do you have any idea as to how to cre- ate or obtain data for your GIS work? GIS is made up of five fundamental components. These are Data, Software, Hardware, People, and Methods. Data is one of the most essential aspects of it. GIS data is basically a spatial data that can be mapped. Spatial data can be obtained from various sources. It might be data obtained directly from the ground or data gathered by others for their own purposes. The first segment may include field survey data and remote sensing photos. The second part includes paper maps and current digital data sets. Therefore, GIS data may be categorized into primary and secondary type, as we saw in the research method section. a. Data generalization To collect, symbolize and represent, the GIS data has to pass through the process of abstraction or generalization. Two key factors must be addressed while collecting, representing, and symbolizing GIS data. These are selecting the level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) and choosing the dimensionalities of the features (point, line, area, volume). Level of measurement In nominal measurement, the numerical values just “name” the attribute uniquely with no ordering of the cases implied. For example, jersey numbers in basketball are measures at the nominal level. A player with number 30 is not more of anything than a player with number 15, and is certainly not twice whatever number 15 is. In ordinal measurement the attributes can be rank-ordered. Here, distances between attributes do not have any meaning. 233 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE For example, on a survey you might code Educational Attainment as 0 = less than high school; 1 = some high school; 2 = high school degree; 3 = some college; 4 = college degree; 5 = post college. In this measure, higher numbers mean more education. But is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4? Of course not. The interval between values is not interpretable in an ordinal measure. In interval measurement the distance between attributes does have meaning. For example, when we measure temperature (in Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is the same as the distance from 70-80. The interval between the values is interpretable. Because of this, it makes sense to compute an average of an interval variable, whereas it does not make any sense to do so for ordinal scales. But note that in interval measurement ratios do not make any sense 80 0c is not twice as hot as 400c (although the attribute value is twice larger). Finally, in ratio measurement there is always an absolute zero that is meaningful. This means that you can construct a meaningful fraction (or ratio) with a ratio variable. Weight is a ratio variable. In applied social research most “count” variables are ratio, for example, the number of clients in the past six months. Why? Because you can have zero clients and because it is meaningful to say that “…we had twice as many clients in the past six months as we did in the previous six months.” Features of dimensionality Mapping Features Conceived as a Point: Many mapped phenomena exist at points, are referenced to as points in reality, or conceived as points for mapping purposes. Such a feature has a locational attribute (X, Y coordinate) that specifies its position on the earth. It might be measured in both quantitative and qualitative ways. Mapping Feature Conceived as Line: Symbols portraying attributes of features conceived as lines are easy to find on the maps. Examples of these symbols include coast line, rivers, administrative boundaries, roads, rail ways and flow and movements between locations. Line features also represent qualitative and quantitative information/data. 234  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Figure 8.5: Mapping feature conceived as point, line and area at the nominal scale Mapping features conceived as area: climate and soil are examples of attribute values collected at a point but conceived as areas and mapped by area symbols. To represent area symbol, we use visual variables associated with patterns (texture, arrangement, and orientation) for mapping features conceived as areas. Figure 8.6: Mapping features conceived as point, line and area at the ordinal and ratio scale Symbolizing features Attribute as Volume: The statistical surface is one of the most important cartography related to volume. It exists for any distribution that is mathematically continuous over an area, and is measured on an ordinal, interval or ratio scale measurement. Dot Maps, Choropleth Maps and Isarithm map are the main examples for portraying features attribute value as volume. 235 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Figure 8.7: Features representation as volume with dot mapping and Choropleth After viewing the above two considerations of the mapping feature and its attribute data, it is possible to make good data generalization. Why do we need to generalize data? It is helpful to distinguish between important and unimportant phenomena or events, and enhance map communication. Thus, each selected feature and its attributes should contribute to the effective communication of information. Some the major elements of data generalization in map making are stated below: Classification – ordering, scaling and grouping features by their attributes and attribute values. Simplification- determining important characteristics of the feature attributes, and eliminates unwanted details. Exaggeration – enhancing or emphasizing important characteristics of the attributes. Symbolization- the graphic coding of information and thereby placing it into a map context b. Data representation Proper representation of data is an important requirement in GIS work. In a GIS environment, there are four basic ways of representation of data in a choropleth maps that all look different. Map readers may likely draw different conclusions from those maps. In those maps data values, which are given below, are grouped into five classes using different data classification methods. You can compare data classification methods by referring to a histogram and noting where classes are divided in the histogram. The natural break / Jenk’s method divides data into the most homogeneous five classes. Notice that the fifth class (53950–105350) in the natural break map, is internally homogeneous, and is distinct from the other classes. 236  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Breaking points are determined through a clustering algorithm that maximizes similarity with class and difference between classes. The default option for data classification in many GIS software is natural break because natural break organizes data in itself, and works in most (if not all) cases. Figure 8.8: Natural break Jenk’s representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017 In an equal interval map, the data values are divided into five classes with equal intervals. To determine the intervals, you divide the range (maximum value minus minimum value) by the number of classes. Classes are equally divided at the interval. 105350-865=104485; thus, when we divide 104485/5=20897. The fifth class has the range 84453-105350 in an equal interval map. While the equal interval method is easy to understand, it does not fairly represent data when the data is highly skewed. For example, in the equal area map in Figure 8.8, the fourth and fifth classes are overrepresented despite the low frequency of the data. Figure 8.9: Equal intervals representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017 237 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE A quantile map divides data in terms of percentiles. If data is grouped into five classes, the first class (865–11031) represents the 0–20th percentile, the second class represents the 20– 40th percentile, and the fifth class (47615–105350) represents the 80–100th percentile. In a quantile map, an equal number of ordered cases (units of observation) is placed in each class. Figure 8.10. Quantile method representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017 Standard deviation calculates the mean and standard deviation from data, and determines breaking points by subtracting multiples of standard deviation from the mean. The standard deviation method is useful when it is important to convey how much data deviates from the average for each areal unit. In contrast to the equal interval and quantile method and natural break, standard deviation takes into account the frequency distribution of data. Figure 8.11. Standard deviation method representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017 Using GIS software, you can also set your own breaking points to meet map requirements. For example, it would make sense to group data into classes manually when you need to visualize income data by population size and countries. 238  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Data should be normalized as needed before mapping. Data normalization is intended to facilitate comparison of data values that are often measured in different units. For example, if you are studying how prevalent obesity is in a community, it would be more useful to look at obesity rates than the number of obese persons because variations in base populations across communities make it hard to compare obesity prevalence equally. Examples of normalized data include mortality rate, rate of population change, and median household income. Reflective Activity 8.3 1. Discuss, in a small group, what the major properties of GIS data are, how we represent them on a map, and what key conditions must be addressed in representation. Please take the population of a district or ‘woreda’ in a region where you reside, and attempt to classify it by using nat- ural break/Jenk’s method, equal interval, quantiles and standard deviation methods. Your geography teacher will provide you a list of ‘woredas’ in your region, along with its total population. 8.2.2. GIS Data Analysis At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ identify the main method of GIS data analysis; „ describe steps to conduct simple spatial analysis using GIS software; and „ interpret maps developed by different GIS based analysis. KEY TERMS: spatial analyst, structured query language, proximity analysis, buffering, overlay analysis, Network analysis. Brainstorming Activity 8.6 1. Can you state some of the problems in your locality that could be addressed by applying GIS techniques? We discussed some of the basic sources and methods of data collection and generalization in the previous section. As shown in Figure 8.11, the GIS work process includes six key phases or steps. However, this part mainly focuses on the fundamentals of data processing and analysis. 239 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Figure 8.12. The major steps the GIS project follows A GIS enhances the data analysis process by providing tools. This can help to create meaningful sequence and show new relationships within or between data sets. Thus, it increases understanding of real world. This is done by integrating data from many sources and analyzing multi-parameter data to offer answers and solutions to a given problem. Spatial analysis is the vital part of GIS. Its operation can be grouped into two, the first one deals with no new data generation that includes Attribute Query and Spatial Query or generally called querying. The second one is concerned with generating a new data including proximity or buffering, overlay and network analysis. a. Querying Attribute Query: It’s a process of selecting information by asking logical questions. Example: From a database of a city parcel map where every parcel is listed with a land use code, a simple attribute query may require the identification of all parcels for a specific land use type. Such a query can be handled through the table without referencing the parcel map. Because no spatial information is required to answer this question, the query is considered an attribute query. In this example, the entries in the attribute table that have land use codes identical to the specified type are identified. Spatial Query: Involves selecting features based on the location or spatial relationships, which requires processing of spatial information. For instance, a question may be raised about parcels within one mile of the freeway and each parcel. In this case, the answer can be obtained either from a hardcopy map or by using a GIS with the required geographic information. 240  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making b. Analysis to generate new data Students, let us take this spatial analysis concept a step further. ¿ Have you ever tried to figure out how to go from your house to your school in the least amount of time? ¿ Have you ever had trouble getting to the nearest health facility from your home? ¿ Assume your family has an ice cream parlor, a fruit market, a bakery, and so on. Has your family had difficulties in obtaining a new branch business center? GIS has a method to tackle these your problems. Proximity analysis Proximity analysis is an important function in GIS as it covers a wide range of topics that help in answering many spatial issues. One of the most basic questions asked of a GIS is “what is near to what?” Proximity tools can be divided into two categories depending on the type of input the tool accepts, namely, features or raster. Therefore, there are two forms of proximity analysis:. feature/ vector based proximity analysis and raster based proximity analysis. Feature (vector) based proximity analysis: For feature data, the tools found in the Proximity toolset can be used to discover proximity relationships. Buffers are usually used to delineate protected zones around features or to show areas of influence. For example, you might buffer a school by one Kilometer and use the buffer to select all the students that live more than one Kilometer from the school to plan for their transportation to and from the school. You could use the multi-ring buffer tool to classify the areas around a feature into near, moderate distance, and long distance classes for an analysis. Buffers are sometimes used to extract data to a given study area or to exclude features within a critical distance of something from further consideration in an analysis. You might use Near tool to find the closest stream for a set of wildlife observations or the closest bus stops to a set of tourist destinations. The tool will also add the Feature Identifier and, optionally, coordinates and the angle toward the nearest feature. 241 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE 8.13. Buffered lines, points and multiple ring buffers Raster-based distance tools: The ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension Distance toolset contains tools that create raster showing the distance of each cell from a set of features or that allocate each cell to the closest feature. Distance tools can also calculate the shortest path across a surface or the corridor between two locations that minimizes two sets of costs. Distance surfaces are often used as inputs for overlay analyses. For example, in a model of habitat suitability, distance from streams could be an important factor for water-loving animals. You might use Euclidean Distance as part of a forest fire model, where the probability of a given cell igniting is a function of distance from a currently burning cell. Euclidean distance is straight-line distance for a given set of input features, the minimum distance to a feature is calculated for every cell. The figure shown below is an example of the output of the Euclidean Distance tool, where each cell of the output raster has the distance to the nearest feature. 8.14. Euclidian distance raster representation 242  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making Overlay analysis Overlay analysis is an age-old technique of deriving new information from two or more layers of data covering the same area. It is arguably the most powerful function of a GIS. Any mapped area of the earth’s surface can be subdivided (classified) into any number of different thematic “layers”. Thus, a typical map will conventionally show rail lines, the road network, forested areas, urban areas, the river network, the coastline, etc., and each of these themes can be mapped separately. Based on the input data used in the process, there are two kinds of overly analysis. These are raster and vector overlay. Vector Overlays: The first type of overly operations we are going to discuss in this subsection is vector overlay. A vector overlay involves combining point, line, or polygon geometry and their associated attributes. All overly operations create new geometry and a new output geospatial data set. You should be cautioned that with certain overly operations, very large attribute tables may result if the overly operations combine many layers, and each layer has a very large attribute table. Additionally, it might be possible that the combined attribute tables would cause duplicate attribute fields to exist. In these cases, you should consider reducing the number of transferred attributes to the minimum required, and renaming duplicate fields so that there is no ambiguity. The vector overlay has also three functions. These are clip, intersect and union. 8.15. Union vector overlay function and output 243 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE Raster overlay: in this part we will discuss the raster overlay. Just like with vectors, we can perform overlay analysis with raster sets using a different series of tools. As vector tools only work with vector layers, raster tools only works with raster layers, and with the exception of a vector layer designating an extent in some raster tools, there are no tools which combine vector and raster data sets for geoprocessing. By “overlaying” one raster over another, we can examine the cell values from one raster to another and find relationships. A faster way of performing an overlay is to use raster data. If both raster layers are of the same resolution and their pixels are aligned, then an overlay operation is merely matching corresponding pixels from both layers and combining their attributes to form a new pixel in the composite layer. This involves no geometrical calculations and no creation of new polygons. Unless the layers are extremely large, overlay analysis involving raster layers can be done interactively. To process the raster overlay analysis, we may utilize a variety of functions. In general, we utilize spatial analysis, overlay tools for one thing, and map algebra for the other. 8.16. Simple map algebra function for raster overlay analysis Network analysis In the context of GIS, a network is defined as a set of interconnected linear features through which resources can flow. Common examples of networks include highways, railways, city streets, canals, rivers, transportation routes etc. through which different vehicles and water can flow.. There are many spatial problems that require the use of network analysis for their solution. These include: 6 To find the shortest path (in terms of physical distance or least cost) that can be followed to visit a series of features in a network, known as pathfinding, 6 To assign one or more portions of a network to be served by a facility or business location, called allocation, 244  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making 6 to find all portions of the network that are connected with the movement of a particular feature (e.g., city transport), known as tracing, 6 To depict the accessibility of a location and the interactions that occur between different locations (based on a technique known as gravity modeling). This is widely used in economics, geography, engineering, and urban planning, known as spatial interaction, 6 To generate a distance matrix between different pairs of locations in the network, known as distance matrix calculation, and 6 To determine simultaneously the locations of existing and planned facilities, as well as the allocation of demand to these facilities, known as location-allocation modeling Reflective Activity 8.4 Discuss, in small groups, how you might uti- lize the GIS function to tackle a current prob- lem in your surroundings. 1. Use the Google Maps application on smart phone, tablet, or other device to plan your journey to a caf- eteria, market place, shop, or any other place from your house. Your geography teacher can show you how to accomplish this in the classroom. 245 UNIT UNIT EIGHT ONE UNIT SUMMARY Research is a scientific method of investigating answers for the problems identified. Development in any country depends, among other things, upon its research capability. There are two basic approaches often used in geographical research works. They are quantitative and qualitative approaches. Current researchers developed a new approach what they call it mixed approach that incorporate both the quantitative and qualitative approaches. Their difference lie mainly in the attributes considered to be measured and the techniques chosen to be used. Geographical research works are different from the research work of other disciplines/ sciences. They are very much concerned with spatial distributions and organizations of things and phenomena in time bound. They also consider the forces that results in determine the distributions. In the study and analysis of spatial aspects, geographical research procedures and techniques with other sciences. For example, identifying the research problem, defining the objective and significance of the research, reviewing literature related to the study, formulating a working hypothesis, etc. Several GIS data sources are available, including various geoportals that provide information sets utilized in GIS and spatial databases for geospatial analysis and mapping. To make map interpretation and visualization easier, the data must be simplified, classified and symbolized in various way as necessary. It is difficult to perform geographical quality research today without the use of geospatial technologies. But the use of the most modern GIS techniques is only meaningful when a specific geographical problem is posed with its basic attributes such as location, distribution, regionalization, systemic interaction between physical environment and human action, and its impact on the landscape and land uses, ecological footprint, sustainability, etc. In most cases, the advanced geospatial analysis and representation techniques correspond to complex models of geographic information processing, because they investigate complex models of spatial organization. 246  Geographical Enquiry and Map Making REVIEW QUESTIONS Multiple Choices: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives for the following statements and questions. 1. Research is:- A. Searching again and again B. Finding solution to any problem C. Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem D. None of the above 2. A research paper is a brief report of research work based on A. Primary Data only B. Secondary Data only C. Both Primary and Secondary Data D. None 3. Which of the following is not the major component of a research paper? A. Problem statement B. Publisher C. Research question D. Discussions 4. Which of the following is a measured quantitative variable? A. Weight in kg B. Height in cm C. Domestic violence D. Income in Birr 5. Which of the following statements is not true about the capabilities of GIS A. Data capture and preparation B. A system of data vending C. Data manipulation and analysis D. Data presentation 247