Global Studies Past Paper PDF

Week 1 The Key Concepts: The key concerns in Global Studies: Global Security Global Justice Humanitarian Crises Inequality and Underdevelopment Climate Change and its Impacts Democracy: Progress and Threats Migration and the Refugee Crisis Global Social Movements Emerging Economies Key actors in global security: States (UK) Inter-Governmental Organisations (IGO’s) International Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO’s) UN specialised agencies and programmes. (UNSCO) Multinational Corporations. (MNCs) Prominent Individuals. (Putin) Criminal enterprises; terrorist organisations. (ISIS) Global Security: this refers to the efforts states make, in concert with other states, to try to bring stability to the international arena, and to avoid war. Human Security: this refers to the well-being of human individuals. Anything which threatens their well-being is a threat to human security: e.g., a global pandemic (such as Covid 19), the effects of climate change, poverty, discrimination, human rights abuses, and so on. Wars and civil wars are also, obviously, a threat to human security. Global Governance: This refers to the process by which states and intergovernmental organisations attempt to bring order and security to global politics. STATE: A territory with a population and a government whose existence and independence are recognized under international law. NON-STATE ACTOR: An institution that is not part of the structure of a state but that influences policy, whether at the local, national, international, or global level. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION: A body set up to promote cooperation between or among states, with either governments or non-governmental actors as members INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATION: A body that works to encourage international cooperation through the work of non-state members such as individuals or private associations. POLYCRISIS: A collective term for the current interlocking and simultaneous crises of an environmental, geopolitical and economic nature that threatens to overwhelm global systems and institutions. The Security Dilemma arises because the international arena is anarchic (meaning there is no world government). Ultimately, each state relies on itself for its security. As a result, each state will build-up its military capacity. But this can be seen as threatening by other states, who in turn build-up their military capacity. This can lead to distrust, an arms race, heightened tension, and even war. Briefly outline one conflict in the 21stC (8). Currently, a major threat to global security is the ongoing war in Ukraine. In Feb. 2022 Russia invaded Ukraine but the crisis predates the invasion. It goes back to the collapse of the USSR. At that time Russia was given informal assurances that NATO would not expand eastwards, but these assurances were not written into a treaty. In the years that followed NATO incorporated, among others Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania. This is seen as threatening by Russia. The situation escalated in 2014 when the government of Viktor Yanukovych (who was elected Ukrainian President in 2010) – who was overthrown after street protests. In the Donbas region Russian separatists – aided by Russia – came into conflict with pro-Ukrainian forces. An agreement was reached at Minsk that would allow the mainly Russian-speaking Donbas region some measure of self-government, but this was never implemented. Russia also occupied Crimea in 2014. The war in the Donbass has been underway since 2014 and this is still where much of the fighting is concentrated. Both the occupation of Crimea and the 2022 invasion are in violation of international law (so, of course, was the invasion of Iraq by US-led forces in 2003). NATO is providing military assistance to Ukraine, supplying anti-tank weapons, anti-aircraft missiles, rocket launchers, and so on. To some extent, this can be seen as a war between NATO and Russia, with Ukraine supplying NATO with ground troops. However, NATO has not gone to far as to try to impose a no-fly zone, or to commit its own ground troops. The danger is that, if the war escalates, two nuclear-armed opponents (NATO and Russia) could be drawn into more direct confrontation. Provide an outline of ONE UN Sustainable Development Goal (8). One UN Sustainable Development Goal is to “End Poverty in All its Forms Everywhere”. This is Sustainable Development Goal No.1. The reference to poverty “in all its forms” refers to the different ways in which poverty affects people. In other words, poverty is not just a matter of income, but also access to education, health care, clean water, electricity, and so on. The Multidimensional Poverty Index is one way these different impacts of poverty are measured. A common measure of extreme poverty used by the World Bank is the $2.15 a day minimum. By this measure the number of people in extreme poverty, over the longer-term, has declined (from around 36% in 1990 to around 9% in 2017). This decline was mainly due to very high rates of economic growth, particularly in China. But this global trend has recently been reversed due to the economic effects of the Covid epidemic, the effects of climate change, and the wars in, for example, Syria and Yemen. This has resulted in millions being pushed back into extreme poverty. The UN aim of reducing the percentage of the global population living in extreme poverty to 3% by 2030, is unlikely to be achieved (currently it is estimated it could be 8% by 2030). Absolute poverty is also a very low threshold, and there are many living in middle-income countries below the higher thresholds for those countries, and, indeed, many living in relative poverty in high-income countries. Week 2 Introduction Identity and Difference: Race: A grouping or classification of humans based on their heritable physical differences, such as skin colour and facial features. It is argued that race is a social construct made up to justify the subjugation of a people. It emphasises physical differences between people. Ethnicity: A group of people who identify with one another based on a shared ancestral, social, and cultural background, often determined by a common language. Multiculturalism: It may also be referred to as cultural pluralism. A belief in a society made up of multiple cultures, and recognition of those cultures. Discrimination: This means treating a person unfairly because of who they are or because they possess certain characteristics. Patriotism: Love of country, identification with country, or devotion to country, as reflected in a pride in the history, symbols and myths of that country. Nationalism: The belief that nations have the right to determine their own destiny, to govern themselves, to have their own states, to place their interests above those of other nations, and to control movements across their borders. Culture Wars: Relate to disagreements about cultural and social beliefs between groups, especially between people with more conservative opinions (= generally against social change) and people with more progressive opinions (= generally supporting social change). Outline two forms of discrimination? (4) Answers can include discrimination based upon characteristics such as gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, religion, disability etc A form of discrimination is gender discrimination (1). This can include discrimination against women in the workplace, so that they may be overlooked for promotions and not receive equal pay for the same work as men (1). Another form of discrimination can be based upon religious beliefs (1). In many states religious minorities are discriminated against, for example the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar (1). What is multiculturalism? (4) It may also be referred to as cultural pluralism (1). A belief in a society made up of multiple cultures, and recognition of those cultures (1). In multicultural communities, people retain, pass down, celebrate and share their unique cultural ways of life, language and traditions (1). Many major European Cities would be regarded as multi-cultural, with a wide range of cultures and nationalities represented within them i.e. London, Barcelona, Berlin etc (1). If a point above is missing, a mark could be given for reference to the following. There has been an increased focus on multiculturalism as a concept in the past decade with large scale migration from the Middle East into Europe (1). Explain what is meant by ‘culture wars’ providing an example from the 21st Century (8). The term ‘Culture Wars’ describes the deep-seated tension that has emerged, particularly in the US between “orthodox” and “progressive” worldviews (1). A “culture war” signals much more than disagreement, it describes a sense of conflict between two irreconcilable worldviews (1). In doing so, it captures the political struggle over cultural issues which are often used to stoke further division (1). Culture wars tend to be described as being fought on one or more “fault lines”. This is often measured by the extent to which attitudes are polarised on issues (1) such as abortion, same-sex marriage and gun control, which tend to have either a strong moral or values basis or rub against changing norms (1). What differentiates a culture war from mere disagreement is the extent to which attitudes coalesce into utterly opposed worldviews (1) with competing visions for the future, and the perceived threat to what either side considers the right or acceptable way to live one’s life (1). Examples of contentious areas of public debate could include Black Lives Matter (recent debate regarding England footballers “Taking the Knee”), Abortion in the USA where this year there has been a landmark Supreme Court ruling to overturn Roe vs Wade (removing the right of women to access an abortion), Trans Gender Rights etc (1) Explain what a Global Social Movement is, using an example from the 21st Century (8). Global Social Movements set out to raise national and/or global awareness of a particular social issue (1). Global Social Movements are loosely organised, as a result they lack the hierarchical structures often associated with other groups seeking to influence public opinion and decision-making, such as Pressure Groups (1). They tend to bring together different groups of people who share some ideals in a given area i.e. the Green Movement focusing on environmental issues (1). Members of such movements tend to have an outsider orientation, therefore they sit outside of the political mainstream, and as a result of this, the focus of their activity is through the use of direct action (1). Their activities, and the “cause” they promote, is not confined to one country (they are transnational) (1). They “target” - or seek to put pressure on – more than one government or international organization (1). An example of a Global Social Movement is the Black Lives Matter Movement (1). The main thrust of the movement is to protest against police racism and police brutality, but broader issues regarding racial inequality. The Black Lives Matter movement has spread to other countries, with protests, for example, in the UK (1). Essay Question: - Discuss TWO forms of discrimination, with examples. How can discrimination harm a person's life and opportunities? Week 3 The Key Concepts: Collective Security - A comprehensive concept of "all for one and one for all". Within a treaty-based international organisation, all states agree to militarily defend a member from aggression, usually in relation to a breach of its sovereignty via territorial incursion. An example is the UN. Collective Defence - An exclusive concept whereby a group of nations identify a specific military threat to their common security; sign a treaty whereby if one is attacked, all are attacked. Each state is compelled to help another member defend itself. An example is NATO. Security Dilemma - the idea that when one state perceives a military threat to its security it will increase its spending on armaments, thus increasing the insecurity of neighbours. Neighbours in-turn will feel threatened, leading to arms races, instability and war. Closely related to the Thucydides Trap: is that when a rising power threatens the position of an established power, the dynamics can lead to heightened competition, distrust, and the potential for conflict. The Thucydides Trap suggests that such power transitions have historically been difficult to navigate peacefully, and the risk of conflict is high. One of the most frequently cited examples of the Thucydides Trap is the rivalry between the United States (the established power) and China (the rising power) in the 21st century. Human Security - A concept that applies to individual citizens within states. It assesses the level of security individuals and communities possess. High levels of sustained insecurity will push a state into failed state categorisation, further fuelling human insecurities. This can apply in a number of ways such as severe and sustained shortages of food, water; biological hazards (pandemics); effects of climate change; communal/tribal violence; persistent economic deprivations, inter alia. Give a definition of the term Anarchy, in International Relations (2) Anarchy means there is no world government (1). This means each state is sovereign (1). Give ONE characteristic of an authoritarian state (2) An authoritarian state controls and owns the media. (1) The government only permits news items favourable to itself. (1) Give ONE characteristic of a failed state (2) A failed state’s government does not control parts of its territory. (1) Rebel groups or non-state actors are the de-facto rulers of these areas. (1) What is the primary purpose of a Collective Security Organisation (CSO)? Provide an example with your answer. (4) A CSO’s main aim is to provide security guarantees, via a Treaty, to its members. (1) It operates under the principle of “all for one and one for all” (1). Each state thereby owes its fellow member military and diplomatic aid in the case of a kinetic attack (1). An example is the United Nations (1). Outline TWO features of a democratic state, with an example (4) One feature is free and fair elections. (1) This is when multiple political parties are at liberty to campaign to become a new government. (1) A second feature is a free media. (1) This means a commitment to freedom of speech and publishing in law.(1) To what extent is Human Security (HS) an important concept in international politics? (8). HS is extremely important because it includes individual citizen’s core interests to be linked to state security (1). The idea is that unless these core interests are secured, a state will face instability which will create regional tensions (1). Examples of tensions can be mass migration/refugee flows, or the regular movement of terrorist groups across borders (1). HS warns policy makers that unless persistent threats to individuals are removed, failed state status cannot be remedied (1). On the other hand, HS is not such a useful tool during times of inter-state war (1). If a security dilemma occurs, other concepts are more likely to be of benefit such as Collective Defence or Collective Security (1). This is because inter-state conflicts are driven by territorial claims or great power rivalry, rather than civil wars (1). HS also suffers from existing within a hierarchical structure, such as state sovereignty. The international community cannot help citizens if a state government refuses to permit outside actors entry (1). “States only care about their own interests”. Provide two paragraphs, arguing for and against this view (8). In favour of this view is the centrality in international affairs of the concept of anarchy (1). This means in the absence of a global government, states must strictly protect their own interests, as no other state will do this for them (1). This leads to the term “self-help system”. (1) Therefore it is a positive and healthy outcome for states to pursue their own interests, as this is the best way to protect their citizens from outside aggression or threats (1). REALIST VIEW Against this view is the vital importance to states of collective action, to attain their goals (1). Some issues such as global trade, global warming and global movement of people are impossible without being a member of an International Organization [IOs] (1). IO membership permits states to achieve outcomes that can not be gained through self-help (1). Even state survival is more likely via membership of a security IO, such as NATO (1). UNIVERSALIST VIEW Essay Question: - "Discuss any TWO threats to human security, using ONE failed state in the 21stC". A grade. 21 or 22 /30 Human Security is the ability to ensure the health, safety, and well-being of an individual or a group of people, that however is not granted in sudan because on the 15th of April 2023, a conflict and a war erupted in Sudan in 7 individual areas including khartoum the capital, and the place in which the largest airport in the country lays, it occurred due to a fight for power between the SAF and the RSF, two forces fighting for power and leading to the death, and injury of children, and women in the process, and causing two main threats of human security, food insecurity, and health insecurity. Food insecurity is when a person lacks regular access to enough safe and nutritious food for normal growth, development, and an active, healthy life, millions of residents are currently experiencing acute food shortages in Sudan as the violence continues. In khartoum, people reported a lack of food and water as the fighting entered its 3rd day on the 17th of April 2023, Food in certain areas has tripled given the lack of supplies. As people have stayed indoors for 4 days since the start of the confrontation, food has become scarce, and there are no places to purchase food, as markets and shops remain closed. In Sudan, the access to safe drinking water is limited, and more than 17 million people do not have access to safe drinking water, To further illustrate Aisha Ibrahim is a 56 year old, who under the circumstances was obligated to send 3 of her 7 children to Sawakin City in the east of the country, while she her husband and another child escaped to another part of Omdurman that is under army control, intensified fighting in recent weeks has exacerbated shortages of food in neighbourhoods on the frontlines, the market in Ibrahim's neighbourhood was only selling potatoes and meat before she left and it has to close at 10 am because of the shelling, data that was gathered from the world food programme illustrated that among the 300,000 people who have arrived in South Sudan in the past 5 months, 1 in 5 children are malnourished and 90% of families say they are going days without eating. Malnourishment is an example of health insecurity, and health insecurity is the inability to secure healthcare and the risk of being unable to do so, Meaning the result of epidemics, malnutrition, and poor sanitation. Unfortunately all three of those are taking place in Sudan currently. Eleven million people in sudan are in urgent need of health assistance, including more than 2.6 million of women and girls of reproductive age who have barely any access to contraception, pregnancy related services, treatment programmes for sexually transmitted infections, or response services for sexual violence, which is reported to be rising as the crisis escalates according to the UN population fund. Moreover, functional medical facilities report having shortages of medical supplies. The world health organisation has reported a shortage of blood, transfusion equipment, intravenous fluids, and other vital supplies to treat the injured in health facilities in khartoum where 39 of 59 medical centres/hospitals have shut down due to their lives being in danger while doing their jobs. In conclusion, the Sudanese conflict is one that should be granted the same attention and call of action like the Ukraine-Russian conflict, the 9/11, and all the other conflicts that have surprisingly gotten so much aid and support from all nations, and what connects all those nations together is the fact that they are european/western, the world seems to disregard the lives of those coming rom fragile states. There's three needs for a human to survive and they are food/water, shelter, and clothes however the sudanese people aren't granted the privileges of those, heartbreakingly the conflict is leading the sudanese to run from the drastic state in Sudan to a less or even more drastic state like South Sudan, Chad, and the Central African Republic. Week 4: International Organizations Collective Security - The idea that all states in a security alliance agree that the security of one is the concern of them all. The UN is an example of Collective Security. Governance - Not a formal institution like a 'government', governance refers to any method used to make and implement collective decisions, this may or may not involve formal institutions. The global anarchy system (absence of a world order/authority or government) means that states can only rely on themselves for their own protection. States have to prioritise defending themselves and seeking what is in their own self-interest. States therefore seek to increase their power and influence so that they can compete more successfully on the world stage. This competition between states makes it more likely for conflict to arise between states. Leading international organisations like IGOs and NGOs interfere to ensure peace and security in the international arena. IGO - Intergovernmental Organisation, for example, The United Nations. An organisation that is made up of a collection of states. Usually membership is achieved through each state signing and ratifying a treaty or agreement. IGOs seek to promote cooperation among member states to solve common challenges. Example NATO: collective security meaning an attack on one member is an attack on all. ASEAN: established by the foreign ministers of Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, The Philippines and Singapore in 1967. The main aims were to promote regional cooperation around economic, social, cultural, technical and educational issues affecting the region. OAU: A major goal of the African Union is to encourage the collective defence, security and stability of its members (1). A way it aims to do this is by fostering Unity across its member states (1). President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana said, “is it not unity alone that can weld us into an effective force, capable of creating our own progress and making our valuable contribution to world peace”. (1) By working together and unifying states the AU aims to safeguard the “sovereignty and territorial integrity of Member States”. (1) United Nations: - General Assembly:The UN General Assembly makes recommendations to States on international issues (1) it can also take action across the UN including political, economic, humanitarian, social and legal matters. (1) - Security council 5 permanent members (veto power) 10 non-permanent members elected for 2 years International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now the World Bank)– Focuses on longer term development of a state’s economy International Monetary Fund (IMF) –originally it was created to encourage stability in world exchange rates. Now it provides shorter term loans in order to help save the economy of states who are facing bankruptcy General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (now the World Trade Organisation (WTO) – established to encourage free trade between states and provide a platform to resolve trade disputes between states. NGO - Non-governmental organisation, for example, Amnesty International. An organisation that exists separate from states and governments, usually to address a particular social or political issue. (Amnesty International) Multinational Corporations (MNCs): These are profit-making corporations operating in more than one country. Some have great wealth and power, more than some (small) states. Multinational corporations may be difficult to effectively regulate (e.g., companies like Starbucks and Facebook can evade tax). The decision over where to invest, to open or close a factory, gives them great leverage over the government. Transfer pricing can be used to shift profits to tax havens, thereby avoiding tax. International organisations may be created to collaborate together and achieve collective goals that could include: War and conflict Poverty Trade and economic issues Disease and health pandemics Human rights Climate change and conservation efforts Explain the role of the United Nations in maintaining global security. (10) The United Nations plays a major role in maintaining global security, by combining different states from across the world to discuss global security issues and issues of peace (1). One way the UN works to maintain global security is through the work of the General Assembly (1). Each member state of the UN has equal membership in the Assembly, meaning each country is entitled to one equal vote (1). The UNGA deals with a number of global issues from racism, inequality, armed conflict and climate change (1), during the Covid 19 Pandemic the UN worked to vaccinate people globally and close the vaccination gap (1). The UNGA decides security issues and the UNSC works to determine threats to peace (1). The UN Security Council (UNSC) also plays a major role in maintaining global security, they work to regulate armaments, use economic sanctions (1) to prevent aggression or even take military action against an aggressor (1). Through the use of sanctions, the UN aims to press for peace, making sure to prevent non-constitutional changes, constrain terrorism and protecting human rights (1) e.g., sanctions were imposed on Al Qaeda and the Taliban to promote stability, safety and peace in Afghanistan (1). Essay Question: - Do international security organisations succeed in preventing global conflict? Use TWO organisations in your answer Week 5 Types of war and Causes of war: WAR: A period of sustained, coordinated violence involving states, non-state actors, and/or groups within states. ASYMMETRICAL WAR((guerrilla war): A war between belligerents whose resources are uneven, in which the weaker side (often fighting an occupying force) resorts to unconventional tactics CONVENTIONAL WAR (inter-state war): War between states Example: Russia and Ukraine TOTAL WAR: This kind of war is characterised by the erosion of the distinction between combatants and civilians; the mobilisation of a whole society and economy for war; and the objective of conquering the enemy. LIMITED WAR: Wars fought to obtain a limited objective but not the invasion and occupation of the enemy. "Border wars" - territorial disputes over a territory contiguous with two states - are limited wars. PROXY WAR (intra-state): A war in which rival states support opposing sides in, for example, a civil war, without these states coming into direct conflict. Example: US Backed Kurdish rebel in Syria against the Russian backed What is distinctive about war as a form of violence? (2) War can be defined as organised violence with a political objective between rival groups. What is meant by irregular warfare? (2) Irregular warfare is fought by non-state actors. In the past it was called guerrilla warfare. It involves insurgents fighting governments using a combination of sabotage and hit-and-run tactics. What is meant by conventional warfare? (2) Conventional warfare is inter-state warfare fought by regular uniformed armies. The war in Ukraine is, at least in part, a conventional war between Ukrainian and Russian armed forces. With an example, explain what is meant by a proxy war? (4) A proxy war is a war in which outside powers support one or other side. For example, the Syrian war is, in part, a proxy war, with Saudi Arabia, the USA, and others supporting anti-Assad forces, and Russia and Iran supporting Assad. In a proxy war the outside powers do not directly intervene, deploying ground forces, but provide armaments, money, and sometimes air support. In the case of the Syrian war the USA and Russia are jostling for support in the region. Briefly explain what is meant by cyber conflict. (4) Cyber conflict is the use of “computational technologies” for destructive purposes, directed against a state. Cyber attacks can come from other states or from non-state actors (e.g., terrorist groups). One method is a Denial of Service (DoS) attack, when a website is forced to shut down after being flooded with more requests for data than can be processed. Another is intrusion when malicious software is used to steal or destroy content. An example is Shamoon, a hard-drive destroying computer virus deployed by Iran against Saudi Arabia. Briefly outline one example of asymmetrical warfare in the 21st century. (8). Asymmetrical warfare occurs when the adversaries are unevenly matched in terms of military capacity. The war in Afghanistan is a case in point. In fact, both Afghan wars illustrate how a weaker opponent can attack and demoralise a more powerful adversary. This is true of the Soviet-Russian war (1979-89) and the US war in Afghanistan (2001-2021). The US invaded Afghanistan in 2001 following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The aim was to eliminate al Qaeda in Afghanistan, but the US war aims soon expanded into removing the Taliban from power. This led to a 20-year conflict. On the one side the US had sophisticated weaponry: aeroplanes, helicopters, drones, armoured vehicles, and so on. But the US had the disadvantage that they were averse to casualties. The Taliban had the advantage of an intimate knowledge of the terrain. They were able to use much less sophisticated weapons, including roadside Improvised Explosive Devices (IED’s). They used classic guerrilla tactics of attacking the enemy at its weak point. In the end, despite their undoubted superior military capacity, the US withdrew (just as, in the 1970’s they withdrew from Vietnam). Briefly explain the difference between new wars and old wars, according to Mary Kaldor. (8). The “new wars” thesis is associated with Mary Kaldor. The argument was that wars between states were in decline. Prior to the current conflicts in Ukraine and Syria, the only such war with large-scale casualties in recent times was the war between Iraq and Iran in the 1980’s Kaldor argued that new wars are more likely to occur within states rather than between states (often in “failed states”). The new wars involved identity politics. The new wars were typically not fought solely by regular armies but by an assortment of “militias, paramilitaries, warlord armies, criminal gangs, and tribal groupings. In addition, the new wars targeted civilians. The characteristic feature is ethnic cleansing i.e., the use of indiscriminate violence to forcibly remove a group of people of a particular ethnicity from a particular territory. This, in turn, often leads to refugee crises, with hundreds of thousands of civilians either “internally displaced” or seeking refuge in neighbouring states. Examples include wars in the Congo, Somalia, and Sudan. Essay Question: - "International security organisations prevent wars". Argue for and against this view. 23/30 76.67 % International security organisations aim to protect the health and safety of the nations within them while providing humanitarian and security aid, in addition to preventing wars and conflicts. The north atlantic treaty organisation (NATO) acts as a collective defence organisation, while the United Nations (UN) acts as a collective security organisation, these 2 inter-governmental organisations (IGOs) that work in their own seperate ways to prevent and assist in preventing certain conflicts while providing humanitarian and security aid to multiple states, and non-state actors, two examples for their actions would be the 9/11 which was aided by the NATO and the Palestinian-Israeli conflict which the UN hasn't stopped its assistance for. Since the Cold War, NATO has played a significant role in preventing terrorist attacks. After the 9/11 attack by Al Qaeda, NATO invoked Article 5, which states that an attack on one member is an attack on all. This led to the US invasion of Afghanistan, with NATO allies joining in to overthrow the Taliban, who had hosted Osama bin Laden and Al Qaeda. NATO led the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from 2003 to 2014, with the goal of enabling the Afghan government to exercise its authority and fight against international terrorism. After ISAF, NATO launched the Resolute Support Mission (RSM) in 2015 to train and assist Afghan security forces. However, the RSM has recently withdrawn due to the Taliban regaining control of Afghanistan. In Iraq, NATO established the NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) in 2004 to help create effective armed forces. The mission focused on training, mentoring, and equipment donation. NTM-I trained thousands of military and police personnel in Iraq but was discontinued in 2011 due to disagreements over the legal status of NATO troops. Overall, NATO has made significant efforts to combat terrorism and support security in Afghanistan and Iraq, and what happened is proof that international security organisations do prevent wars. The Palestinian-Israelis conflict, is an ongoing conflict that has been taking place since 1948 due to the occupation forces of Israel, and their invasion on the land of palestine, Israeli forces had been given constant military aid by the united states since 1973. Thousands of Palestinians have died due to the brutality done by the alliance of Israel and the US, and there's millions of palestinian refugees around the world. The UN had tried multiple times to erase the conflict and take action, however the Israeli occupation hasn't followed any of the laws and rules placed upon it, and the violence and brutality placed upon palestinians. Nonetheless, the UN provided and is still providing humanitarian aid to palestinians, specially in the gaza strip, however since the rising of conflicts and that latest events that have been taking place since the 7th of October, 2023, humanitarian aid hasn't been able to reach the people of gaza and no military action is taking place due to the united states Vetoing all resolutions aiming to help the palestinians. Which leads us to believe that intergovernmental organisations are useful to a certain limit. The people of Gaza now are lacking food, water, shelter, and medical aid. However no country is now currently able to prevent that as it would lead to a larger conflict with the US. The following events let us conclude that intergovernmental organisations can only work when the side affected is the strong one, aside from that no action would be placed to save the people of those failed states, and when action is taken it targets the aftercause of war, instead of tackling the issue from its roots. In conclusion, international security organisations such as NATO and the UN play crucial roles in preventing conflicts, providing humanitarian aid, and maintaining global security. NATO has demonstrated its effectiveness in combating terrorism through its interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq, while the UN has consistently provided humanitarian aid to those affected by conflicts, such as the ongoing Palestinian-Israeli conflict. However, it is important to acknowledge that these organisations have limitations and are sometimes constrained by political interests and power dynamics, as evident in the lack of resolution in the Palestinian- Israeli conflict due to the US vetoing actions. This raises concerns about the ability of intergovernmental organisations to fully address and resolve complex conflicts. The recent events in Gaza highlight the unfortunate reality of limited action when the strong party is involved, leaving innocent civilians suffering without access to basic necessities. While these organisations have made important strides, it is essential to address conflicts at their roots rather than merely focusing on the aftermath. Overall, the effectiveness of intergovernmental organisations depends on various factors, but there is still much work to be done to ensure the health and safety of all nations and individuals. Week 6: Terrorism - the act of using unlawful violence and intimidation by irregulars, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of a particular cause with the aim of achieving their goals (political, economic, religious, or for social purposes). Insurgent - a person fighting against a government or invading force; a rebel or revolutionary. Freedom Fighter - a person who takes part in a revolutionary struggle to achieve a political goal, especially in order to overthrow their government. State Terrorism - where a government tries to spread fear among its citizens and members of the opposition. State-Sponsored Terrorism - when a government supports the activities of terrorist groups in other countries. Counter-terrorism - Counter-terrorism relates to the efforts to build global consensus to degrade and defeat terrorist organisations. This will most often be directed from the state level and require cooperation with other states and IGOs. Explain one way in which terrorist groups use social media (4) Terrorist groups use social media for propaganda (1). They make videos which circulate on social media (1) and which represent the group in a positive way such as having justifiable aims (1). This may influence people to be more sympathetic to their cause and to try to join them (1). Explain one form of counter-terrorism? (4) Counter-terrorism relates to the efforts to build global consensus to degrade and defeat terrorist organisations(1). This will most often be directed from the state level and require cooperation with other states and IGOs to build the capabilities necessary to prevent, degrade, detect, and respond to terrorist threats(1). Law enforcement and border security are important component parts of this (1). States will adapt their security in these areas, dependent upon the threat level it is facing at any one time (1). Explain the experience of one country impacted by terrorist activities, using an example from the 21st Century (8). Al-Shabaab is a jihadi insurgent group active in Somalia. The group developed in the early 2000s and continue to this day to be a threat and destabilising force inside of Somalia(1). Al-Shabaab continue to conduct bombings against civilians and businesses as well as targeted assassinations of key government figures(1). Most attacks have occurred in the capital city of Mogadishu where close to half of their attacks have been carried out(1). Attacks take place against government forces, civilians, African Union forces and against trucks bringing in relief food and medicines to the country(1). In recent years, Somali security forces, supported by the US and the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), have continued to exert pressure on al-Shabaab through coordinated counterterrorism operations(1). In response to increased counterterrorism operations, Al-Shabaab have shifted their focus to urban areas like Mogadishu, making it increasingly difficult for US and Somali forces to target the terror group given their close proximity to civilians(1). Whilst counter-terrorism efforts have reduced terrorist activity in Somalia, Al-Shabaab retains control over 20 per cent of the country, including areas in the Jubaland region and along the border with Kenya. They have also recently launched an offensive over the border into Ethiopia(1). The group has been able to move freely, extort local populations and forcibly recruit fighters, some of whom were children. Al-Shabab’s continued attacks degrade the Somali government’s ability to both provide security and alleviate the dire humanitarian situation in the country(1). Explain the methods used in modern day terrorism, using an example(s) from the 21st Century (10). First, to be effective, terrorism must be seen and heard. Terrorists need an audience. As a result of this Terrorists use many different methods of attack, with the goal of taking human life, gaining media attention and spreading fear(1). As well as using tried and tested methods, they are able to innovate, as demonstrated by the attacks on New York on 11 September 2001. The Paris attacks of 2015 saw a complex plot involving multiple attackers and various weapons, all coordinated to occur simultaneously(1). This was the most sophisticated western attack carried out by ISIS, involving at least nine operatives and using multiple weapons including automatic firearms and person-borne improvised explosive devices (PBIEDs)(1). Explosive devices are regularly used, as these can be delivered to their targets in vehicles, by post or by a person. An explosive device within a vehicle is a common means of attack for some terrorist groups. International terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) often use suicide operatives in vehicles to improve the likelihood of the explosives detonating at the required moment(1). These Suicide bombers also carry an explosive device into the vicinity of a target individual or location. For example, in 2022 a bomb tore through a Shiite mosque in Peshawar, in northwestern Pakistan, killing at least 57 people and wounding more than 100 in one of the worst terrorist attacks in Pakistan in several years. ISIS claimed responsibility, stating that the bombing was carried out by an Afghan suicide bomber(1). Shootings and close quarter attacks are also commonplace(1). Terrorist groups have carried these out targeting civilians, in the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. ISIS has also encouraged “lone wolf” attacks, stating that supporters do not need to have already travelled to Syria before launching attacks(1). Jihadist groups in conflict zones around the world actively seek to kidnap Western nationals for financial and propaganda gain. Videos have been released of the murders of individuals previously kidnapped(1). Through these videos, ISIS have sought to spread fear. A final note should be made relating to recruitment. Terrorist groups use the internet and grooming as a means to recruit followers to their cause(1). An example of this, was the 15 year old schoolgirl Shamima Begum who left the UK to join ISIS in Syria(1)., Essay question: - “Terrorism today is the most significant threat to Global Security.” To what extent do you agree with this view.” Week 7 Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing: Genocide - According to the UN Genocide Convention (1948) - "...genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: 1. Killing members of the group; 2. Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; 3. Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; 4. Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; 5. Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. The genocide in Darfur: Violence and destruction are raging in the Darfur region of western Sudan. Since February 2003, government-sponsored militias known as the Janjaweed have conducted a calculated campaign of slaughter, rape, starvation and displacement in Darfur. It is estimated that 400,000 people have died due to violence, starvation and disease. More than 2.5 million people have been displaced from their homes and over 200,000 have fled across the border to Chad. Many now live in camps lacking adequate food, shelter, sanitation, and health care. The United States Congress and President George W. Bush recognized the situation in Darfur as “genocide.” Darfur, “near Hell on Earth,” has been declared the worst humanitarian crisis in the world today. The Yazidi Genocide: On 3 August 2014, Islamic State (ISIS) militants launched a genocide against the Yazidi community in Sinjar, northern Iraq. Yazidi men who refused to convert to Islam were executed and left in mass graves. An estimated 7,000 Yazidi women and girls, some as young as nine, were enslaved and forcibly transferred to locations in Iraq and eastern Syria. Held in sexual slavery, survivors reported being repeatedly sold, gifted, or passed around among ISIS fighters. Ethnic Cleansing - According to a UN report in 1994 Ethnic Cleansing means - “… a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas.” Ten Stages of Genocide - Originally created by Research Professor Gregory Stanton in 1987. These stages warn of an impending genocide before it takes place. 1. Classification – The differences between people are not respected. There’s a division of ‘us’ and ‘them’ which can be carried out using stereotypes, or excluding people who are perceived to be different. 2. Symbolisation – This is a visual manifestation of hatred. Jews in Nazi Europe were forced to wear yellow stars to show that they were ‘different’. 3. Discrimination – The dominant group denies civil rights or even citizenship to identified groups. The 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship, made it illegal for them to do many jobs or to marry German non-Jews. 4. Dehumanisation – Those perceived as ‘different’ are treated with no form of human rights or personal dignity. During the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, Tutsis were referred to as ‘cockroaches’; the Nazis referred to Jews as ‘vermin’. 5. Organisation – Genocides are always planned. Regimes of hatred often train those who go on to carry out the destruction of a people. 6. Polarisation – Propaganda begins to be spread by hate groups. The Nazis used the newspaper Der Stürmer to spread and incite messages of hate about Jewish people. 7. Preparation – Perpetrators plan the genocide. They often use euphemisms such as the Nazis’ phrase ‘The Final Solution’ to cloak their intentions. They create fear of the victim group, building up armies and weapons. 8. Persecution – Victims are identified because of their ethnicity or religion and death lists are drawn up. People are sometimes segregated into ghettos, deported or starved and property is often expropriated. Genocidal massacres begin. 9. Extermination – The hate group murders their identified victims in a deliberate and systematic campaign of violence. Millions of lives have been destroyed or changed beyond recognition through genocide. 10. Denial – The perpetrators or later generations deny the existence of any crime. Give TWO examples of genocide in the 21stC (2) The case of the Rohingya’s in Myanmar, 2014 (1) and the case of the Yazidi’s in Iraq, 2014. (1) Give TWO ways genocide can be prevented (2) One way is to ban inciteful and hateful language towards minority groups (1). A second method is to uphold human rights laws so that individuals and government officials are held to account for their actions (1). Briefly outline TWO stages leading to genocide (4). One stage is symbolisation (1). A targeted group is forced to wear a symbol to separate them from the rest of society (1). A second stage is persecution (1). This is where members of a group have their property illegally confiscated and face daily harassment and violence (1). In 2014 the Yazidi community faced a genocide in Iraq. Give TWO reasons why this was allowed to happen (4). The first reason is that Iraq was a failed state (1). Its government didn’t control areas where the Yazidi community lived, therefore failing to protect them (1). Secondly, ISIS was a heavily armed terrorist group which was difficult to defeat (1). This was compounded by the international community’s lack of desire to intervene in Iraq’s internal affairs (1). Briefly discuss why democratic states are unlikely to commit a genocide (8) Although not impossible, it is highly unlikely a democratic state will commit genocide (1). These types of states are organised by the rule of law (1). These laws include human rights which swiftly punish individuals who exhibit hateful actions and/or speech (1). Democratic states are also unable to pass discriminatory laws as they would clash with entrenched human rights laws (1). These states also preserve a free media (1). This allows public scrutiny into harmful government actions which would destroy a government’s credibility (1). A free media can also create investigations and publications that shine a light on government activities (1). Finally, a political party exhibiting genocidal tendencies is highly unlikely to win many votes in a free and fair election (1). Essay Question: “The international community must intervene in cases of genocide”. Argue for and against this view Week 8 Climate Change: BIODIVERSITY - A contraction of the term biological diversity, describing the variety and the populations of the many species of life on earth. CLIMATE CHANGE - Changes to the global climate resulting from an enhanced greenhouse effect, caused – in turn – by rising concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, produced mainly by the burning of fossil fuels. FOSSIL FUELS - Fuels formed from the decay of organic matter over millions of years, including coal, oil, and natural gas. ENVIRONMENTALISM -A philosophy, theory, or ideology that encourages deeper understanding of the environmental impact of human actions. FOOD SECURITY - A condition in which people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - Development that is planned and implemented in such a way as to meet short-term needs without compromising future needs. Identify one target set by the COP26 Conference in Glasgow in 2021 (2) Nearly 20 countries agreed to speed up the end of fossil fuel subsidies. They agreed to “accelerate efforts” to phase-out “inefficient” subsidies. Nothing was said about oil and gas. Identify two sources of renewable energy. (2) The sources of renewable energy include wind and solar power. Briefly explain what is meant by sustainable development. (4) This is the idea that the resources of the planet are finite, and that economic growth should take place in such a way that not only our present needs but also the needs of future generations can be met. For this reason, environmentalists support investment in renewable energy (such as wind and solar power). Briefly outline some of the effects of climate change. (4) One effect is global warming (an increase in the earth’s temperature). One consequence is that Glaciers worldwide are melting at an accelerated rate. This, in turn, contributes to rising sea levels (causing flooding and soil contamination and putting coastal cities at risk). Extreme weather events (e.g., storms, heat waves, droughts, wildfires) occur with greater frequency (and because of rising sea levels storms penetrate further inland). Briefly explain the differential impact of climate change. (8) What this means is that, although the effects of climate are global, the impact is uneven. The impact is greatest in developing countries. The 5 biggest climate change threats are drought, flooding, storms, coastal inundation, and agricultural losses. The countries most affected are low and middle-income countries (they include countries such as Eritrea, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, and Vietnam). With a few exceptions (e.g., India) none are big contributors to the causes of global warming; they suffer from the consequences of global warming generated by other countries. The biggest emitters of CO2 are China (28%) and the USA (15%). However, the biggest per capita emitter is the USA (16.5%). Also, over the longer-term the developed countries bear greater responsibility: of the 2,450 billion tonnes of carbon released since 1850, North America is responsible for 27% and China for 11%. Explain why international conferences on climate change are likely to lead to shallow agreements. (8). There are several problems. One is that all else being equal, it is simply difficult to get agreement on anything the greater the number of countries required to agree. A further problem has to do with differential impact and differential responsibility for climate change. Developing countries cannot see why they should forgo economic growth and enjoy the advantages, in terms of living standards, of high-income countries. Conversely, the USA view is that it is unreasonable to expect them to take drastic measures to reduce emissions if China (and the BRIC countries) do not do likewise. There is also a free-rider problem, largely because there is no effective enforcement mechanism, that is, no way of guaranteeing that countries will do what they promise. Shallow agreements allow political leaders to look as if they are doing something, while shying away from the high political costs of serious but unpopular action to reduce their CO2 emissions. Essay Question: “To what extent have environmental threats created harm and conflict in the 21st Century”? Week 9 Energy security: CLIMATE CHANGE - Changes to the global climate resulting from an enhanced greenhouse effect, caused – in turn – by rising concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, produced mainly by the burning of fossil fuels. ENERGY SECURITY – The IEA defines energy security as the uninterrupted availability of energy at an affordable price. ENERGY INSECURITY – the loss of welfare that may occur as a result of a change in the price or availability of energy FOSSIL FUELS - Fuels formed from the decay of organic matter over millions of years, including coal, oil, and natural gas. OPEC – The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an intergovernmental organisation with 13 members. OPEC's objective is to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry. A larger group called OPEC+ was formed in late 2016 to have more control on the global crude oil market. IEA – The International Energy Agency. An intergovernmental organisation established in 1974 made up of 31 member countries. It aims to ensure energy security and tackle clean energy transition by collecting data and providing training and advice. HYDRAULIC FRACTURING – Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, is a drilling method used to extract oil or natural gas from shale rock. It involves directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand and chemicals at a rock layer, to release the gas inside. Identify two intergovernmental organisations that have a role in enhancing energy security. (2) OPEC - The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (1) IEA – The International Energy Agency (1) Briefly outline factors relating to opposition to nuclear energy (4) Opposition to nuclear energy is based around expense and risk (1). The initial expense of installing nuclear reactors is prohibitive, as is the cost of disposing of and long-term storage of nuclear waste (1). Opponents also highlight the risk of accidents such as the Fukushima disaster in Japan in 2011 (1). Further risks have emerged following the conflict in Ukraine where fighting has jeopardized safety at nuclear facilities (1). Briefly outline the controversy around fracking (4). Fracking is a technique for recovering gas and oil from shale rock. For states with previously inaccessible deposits, it could strengthen the security of its energy supplies (1). However, the processes involved can cause earth tremors which is a concern for citizens living near proposed sites (1). Shale gas is also a fossil fuel and campaigners would argue that fracking could distract governments from investing in renewables (1). There are also significant environmental costs in the necessary water use and its transportation to sites (1). Discuss recent threats to energy security in Europe (8) The recent threat to Europe’s energy security lies in spiking natural gas prices (1). This has an impact on inflation whilst limiting industrial output and causing ordinary people to struggle to pay their energy bills (1). Natural gas prices are ten times higher than the average over the last decade and ten times higher than in the US (1). There is a real uncertainty as to whether supply will meet demand over the coming winter (1). The causes of the crisis can largely be explained by conflict in Ukraine (1) which has disrupted exports of Russian gas to Europe (1). This has also raised prices elsewhere meaning alternative gas supplies are expensive (1). Added to this is the fact that many of Europe’s nuclear plants are offline reducing the availability of alternative energy (1). Discuss measures any state may take to ensure its energy security (8) Energy security can be defined as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price (1). According to the International Energy Agency, China’s energy sector is moving into a new direction following the president’s call for an ‘energy revolution’ (1). China’s attempts to ensure energy security are linked to its huge population and rapid economic growth over the past 40 years (1). China’s energy policy can be regarded as contradictory as it sees strong investment in renewables as well as continued investment in coal power generation (1). China is the world’s sixth largest oil producer but relies on imports to meet consumption demands (1). Most of this oil is imported from the Middle East although significant proportions also come from Africa and Russia. The implication is that China’s energy security is vulnerable to oil being ‘weaponised’ in any future ‘conflict’ (1). To mitigate this, China pursues diversity of energy supply through investing in infrastructure projects and oil backed loans (1). The infrastructure projects include pipeline construction, for example the oil and natural gas pipelines connecting Myanmar to Yunnan province (1). Essay Question: "Discuss and evaluate ANY TWO global security threats, during the 21st Century". (30) 24/30 80% Global security is the efforts states make, in concert with other states, to try to bring stability to the international arena, and to avoid conflicts. Any threat that comes in the way of global security would lead to global insecurity, such threats could include:climate change, energy security, terrorism, wars, and genocides. Today I will be discussing two threats that have had a great impact on global security in the 21st century which are intrastate conflicts, and terrorism. Intrastate conflicts occur within a state and involve state actors fighting against non-state actors. These conflicts have significant global security implications, such as the displacement of citizens seeking refuge in neighbouring countries and the potential for international intervention to escalate the conflict into an interstate conflict. For example, the ongoing Syrian conflict which is an ongoing event that has been taking place for the past 22 years between the government, which is a state actor acting upon Bashar Al Assad rules and regulations against the non-state actors like ISIS, has caused immense suffering for its citizens, who face displacement, hunger, and thirst. As a result, countries like Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq have had to bear the burden of hosting millions of Syrian refugees, Leading Syrians to move from a fragile state to another. Impacting their economies and leading their citizens to seek economic stability elsewhere. Additionally, international interference has fueled political polarisation, with groups supporting the Syrian government and others opposing it. This interference has involved nations like Russia, China, and Iran, aligning with the government against non-state actors like ISIS, Al Qaeda, and Al Nusra. Intrastate conflicts also create favourable conditions for the rise of terrorist organisations and extremist ideologies, as weak governance and security destabilisation allow these groups to establish bases, recruit fighters, and plan attacks. This poses a direct threat to global security, including exporting violence, training foreign fighters, and coordinating attacks in other countries. Terrorism has been a major global security threat in the 21st century, with groups like Al Qaeda and ISIS carrying out devastating attacks. The most notable example is the 9/11 attacks in the United States, arranged by Al Qaeda. This attack involved hijacking commercial aeroplanes and crashing them into the World Trade Center. The impact of the 9/11 attacks was profound, not only in terms of the lives lost and the destruction caused, but also in terms of global security. It prompted the United States to launch the War on Terrorism (counter-terrorism), leading to military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq. These interventions aimed to dismantle Al Qaeda and eliminate the Taliban regime in Afghanistan that harboured them. However, these interventions also resulted in the rise of extremism and the formation of new terrorist groups, such as ISIS, which emerged in the destabilisation of Iraq. ISIS quickly gained control over large parts of Iraq and Syria, establishing a self-declared caliphate and carrying out brutal acts of violence. The rise of ISIS further destabilised the region and posed a significant global security threat, as it attracted foreign fighters, carried out attacks abroad, and inspired other extremist groups to arise. The ongoing fight against terrorism continues to be a major challenge for the international community, as it requires not only military efforts but also addressing root causes such as political dissatisfaction and inequality of opportunity based on social and economic factors. In conclusion, intrastate conflicts and terrorism have been two significant global security threats in the 21st century. Intrastate conflicts, like the ongoing Syrian conflict, have not only led to the displacement and suffering of millions of people but have also caused political polarisation and international intervention that escalates conflicts. Terrorism, exemplified by groups like Al Qaeda and ISIS, has caused fear and destabilisation worldwide, with attacks such as the 9/11 leading to military interventions and the rise of more extremist groups. These 2 different threats are also interconnected for instance, with the arising of intrastate conflicts, terrorist groups grow and reform, and with the arrangement of terrorist attacks we can see intrastate conflicts occuring. Both of these threats require multilateral efforts and comprehensive strategies to address the underlying causes and mitigate the impact on global security. Week 10 US Role in Maintaining Global Order: AUKUS - A three-way strategic defence with Australia & the UK. Bush Doctrine - Named after the US President, George W. Bush. It refers to the approach taken by his administration to foreign policy, involving unilateral interventionism (acting alone), pre-emptive strikes and regime change. Extraordinary Rendition - the transfer of foreign nationals suspected of involvement in terrorism to detention and interrogation in countries where -- in the CIA's view -- federal and international legal safeguards do not apply. Guantanamo Bay - The US Naval base located in Cuba, used by the Americans, as a prison for terror suspects. Unipolar - Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States has enjoyed unparalleled military power. The international system has therefore been unipolar. WMDs - Weapons of Mass Destruction i.e. Chemical & Nuclear Outline One reason for the war in Afghanistan. (2) One reason for the war in Afghanistan was US retaliation following the 9/11 attacks (1). Nealy 3,000 people were killed in these attacks carried out by the terrorist group called Al-Qaeda (1). Identify two impacts of the ‘War on Terror.’ (2) The US intervention in Iraq weakened and undermined IGOs for example the UN and NATO. (1) It also caused mass destabilisation in Iraq and the wider region enabling the rise of ISIS (1). Identify two reasons why the US invasion of Iraq was so controversial. (4) The motives surrounding the invasion of Iraq have always been unclear compared to Afghanistan, there was limited justification in the invasion of Iraq (1). Bad intelligence suggested that Iraq had Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) which could be activated within 45 minutes (1), this was proven to be false as no WMDs were found within Iraq (1). It has been suggested that America invaded Iraq to gain access to oil within the region (1). Explain one counter terrorism measure used by the United States. (4) Following 9/11 President Bush wanted to bring in measures to prevent an attack happening again. One being extended surveillance of US citizens deemed a potential threat (1). The Patriot Act granted special powers to expand Domestic terrorism including Domestic surveillance (1). These increased surveillance powers allowed the US government to prevent attacks by carrying out secret searches and surveillance (1), this also led to extraordinary rendition which allowed the US government to use the information gathered under the Patriot Act to send “terror threats” to other countries to be interviewed and tortured (1). Outline two criticisms of the counter terrorism policies employed by the United States (4) One criticism of the counter terrorism policies employed by the United States, was that any form of increased surveillance is a challenge to civil liberties. This is because surveillance involves breaches of privacy, for example when individuals' internet use is spied upon. Another criticism was that the United States set aside liberal democratic principles following 9/11, particularly around human rights. This was evident in the torture used on detainees at Guantanamo Bay. Explain the use of hard and soft power by the United States in the 21st Century (10). The United States have been proponents of both, hard and soft power throughout the 21st Century. The Bush Presidency saw a shift towards the use of hard power, following the 9/11 attacks. The military invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, along with the introduction of counter terrorism measures, including extraordinary rendition, saw hard power come to the fore. The Obama years saw a shift to the use of drones, targeting perceived terror threats. In more recent times, the arming of Ukraine in their war with Russia, and the economic sanctions it has imposed, would be other examples of hard power, even if the US is not directly engaged in the conflict. In regards to soft power, the United States have always sought to make political capital by using their cultural influence abroad i.e. music, film etc. More obvious examples of soft power have been visible in their Nuclear Deal with Iran in 2015, where they were able to reach a negotiated agreement to end economic sanctions (hard power). Another such attempt to engage diplomatically with a state, seen as posing a global security threat, include Trump’s meeting with Kim Jong Un of North Korea, to seek a pathway to denuclearisation of the Korean peninsula. Essay Question: “The USA maintains global security.” To what extent do you agree with this view? Week 11 New Technologies and Surveillance: Unmanned Drone - Usually, though not necessarily, refers to an aerial flying device controlled by a human operator. Can be used in pacific ways (i.e. survey mapping, delivering groceries) or in non-pacific ways (i.e. combat fighting & military surveillance operations). L.A.W.S - Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems - These are usually, but not necessarily, aerial combat devices used in theatres of war. They are a form of unmanned drone but remove the human operator from decision making. They use AI to choose targets, return to base, or loiter. Artificial Intelligence - The process whereby machines make new decisions without human intervention. A process whereby decisions are made in real-time based upon calculations from new data i.e. sensors. A key component of L.A.W.S, AI is a form of Revolution in Military Affairs (R.M.A). R.M.A - Revolution in Military Affairs - A technological advantage in war that allows one side a decisive victory or advantage, over an opponent. RMAs have occurred throughout the history of war in many ways. The most recent being the adoption of AI into combat systems. Provide the name of ONE drone manufactured by Turkey. Provide one theatre where it has been used? (2) The Bayraktar 2 drone (1). It has been used in the Syrian civil war (1). Outline any TWO advantages of using drones in a combat role. (4) One advantage is the removal of threat to human pilots (1). Substituting with technology allows military planners to minimise political blowback (1). A further advantage is that drones can loiter indefinitely whilst human pilots cannot (1). This provides the operator with a 24/7 surveillance capability (1). Outline TWO criticisms of the use of drones in a combat role. (4) One criticism has been collateral damage (1). It is argued that drones cannot destroy their target without inflicting death and injury to innocent parties (1). A second criticism is that the decision to kill an enemy target is carried out thousands of miles away (1). This minimises the emotional and political barriers to carrying out targeted killings (1). Explain how the use of LAWS may provide a military advantage to a state. (4) Laws provide a state with a military advantage by allowing the AI to continue its mission despite losing direct control (1). AI can substitute human control in favour of face-detection technology to eliminate a target (1). Another advantage is swarm tactics (1). LAWS can be set to automatically attack targets by swarming defences, all without human operation, which can be prone to error (1). Discuss TWO ethical issues surrounding the use of AI technology and LAWS in combat roles (8). The first ethical issue is one of accountability (1). By substituting human control for AI, decision makers are removed from real-time responsibility for their decisions (1). Errors in targeting or programming may lead to collateral damage (1). Politicians may claim that “technical error” was to blame, rather than their lack of control (1). Therefore, by using LAWS, a democratic system may lose the ability to hold governments to account (1). A second ethical issue is the potential to not discriminate between legitimate and illegitimate targets (1). LAWS may not be able to identify if an enemy has surrendered and may proceed to eliminate its target – a violation of the rules of war (1). It may further be unable to delineate between combatants that do not wear uniforms, and non-combatants, leading to collateral damage (1). Finally, LAWS may be unable to accurately adapt a response if a threat level changes, leading to a disproportionate amount of force being used (1). In terms of military effectiveness, argue for and against the use of drones in combat scenarios (10). Drones have affected battlefields most recently in Syria, Libya and Nagorno-Karabakh (1). They have been able to destroy vast amounts on terrestrial-based equipment such as tanks, APC’s and artillery pieces (1). Turkish drones in the Syrian conflict were able to destroy Russian anti-air defence systems (1). In Nagorno-Karabakh Azeri forces were able to inflict a massive defeat upon Armenian capabilities, mostly using drone technology, supplied by Turkey (1). Drones such as the Predator have also helped the US fight its “War on Terror”, mostly against alleged Al-Qaeda militants (1). On the other hand, it has been argued that against well prepared adversaries’ drones may not fare so well (1). In the war between Russia-UKR, drones have helped the UKR side, but have not been decisive in the conflict (1). In contrast, the use of Javelins and NLAWS have been highly successful against Russian ground units (1). Furthermore, drones cannot win wars alone – despite widespread usage the US had to withdraw from both Iraq & Afghanistan (1). Overall, therefore, drones are certainly impactful on any battlefield, but may not prove to be the decisive factor (1). Essay Question: Are new Military Technologies likely to Engender peace, or create new types of conflict, in the 21 Century? (30) Week 12 Arms Proliferation and Military Spending: NON-PROLIFERATION – the prevention of an increase or spread of something, especially the number of countries possessing nuclear weapons. COUNTER PROLIFERATION – This is an effort to obstruct, slow or roll back the programmes of states that are actively pursuing nuclear weapons, as well as to deter and defend against their use. WMD – Weapons of Mass Destruction. These include nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, as opposed to conventional weaponry. NUCLEAR DETERRENCE THEORY – Using the threat of retaliation to protect oneself from attack. Nuclear states use the threat of retaliation to deter other states from attacking them. Extended deterrence theory applies to the concept that the threat of a nuclear response will deter an attack on an ally of a nuclear state. THE NUCLEAR CLUB – The world’s nuclear armed states - Russia / USA / China / France / UK / Pakistan / India / Israel / North Korea. 2021 estimates put the number of nuclear warheads at approximately 13,000 with more than 90% belonging to Russia and the USA. What is the NPT (2) The NPT refers to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons. It was signed in 1968 and came into force in 1970. (1) Almost all states signed the treaty although India, Pakistan and Israel are not signatories. (1) What is SIPRI? (2) SIPRI is the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. (1) It is an independent body dedicated to research into conflict, arms control and disarmament. (1) Outline TWO reasons why military spending has increased in Germany in recent years. (4) Germany has recently increased its military spending to match a 2% GDP goal set by NATO (1). Defence ministers signed onto this at a NATO summit in 2002 and reaffirmed this in 2014 following the annexation of Crimea. (1) A second reason for the increased military spending is the Ukrainian War (1). Just days after the Russian invasion of Ukraine German Chancellor Scholz announced increased German military spending to over 2% of GDP. This meant bringing the weapons back up to standard to both support the Ukrainian war effort and to protect Germany from Russia (1). What are the intended aims of UNSC Resolution 1540? (4) UN Security Council Resolution 1540 passed unanimously in 2004. (1) It was directed against the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons as well as their delivery and related material. (1) The resolution was designed to address the full range of proliferation activity, including support for proliferators and acquisition of WMD by non-state actors. (1) It is a key part of international efforts to prevent WMD falling into the hands of terrorists and other non-state actors. (1) Explain reasons for limiting spending on the military. (8) Your answer may refer to Spending on the military in or by any country or countries Statistics which show the extent of spending on the military in or by any country or countries According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (1), world military spending rose to approximately $2 trillion in 2020 (1). This represented a 2.6% increase in real terms from 2019. Five countries accounted for about 60% of spending: The USA, China, India, Russia, and the UK. In the same period, there was a fall in military spending amongst OPEC countries (1). Reasons for limiting spending on the military can include a variety of factors. They can result from opposition to military spending from activist groups or political parties (1). This opposition could come from a desire to prevent further extensive loss of life in states affected by ongoing conflict, or from environmental concerns (1). Budgets can also be prioritized in other areas such as health, education, or public infrastructure (1). In the case of Chile and South Korea, planned military spending was allocated to pandemic response (1). It is likely that the data for 2022 will indicate an increase in spending amongst NATO members due to conflict in Ukraine. (1) Explain the shift in German military spending since 2021 (10) In 2000 German military spending made up roughly 1.3% of GDP compared with the United Kingdom, where military spending made up 2.85% of GDP in the same year (1). This underspending gave the German military the reputation of the “Sick Man of Europe” (1). In 2005 Angela Merkel was sworn in as the Chancellor of Germany. Merkel placed an emphasis on international cooperation through organisations such as the European Union and the United Nations and a move away from Military intervention (1). Merkel oversaw a policy of restraint regarding foreign policy and often refrained from military intervention. For example, in 2011 Germany did not participate in a European led intervention into Libya (1). Merkel moved away from traditional military intervention into what was called the “Enable and Enhance Initiative” where they wanted to train up and equip “trustworthy” partners in global trouble spots (1). This focuses primarily on logistical support, training, and arms exports with the idea to keep Germany away from the front lines and keep costs down, this has often been criticised as Germany leaving their allies to “get their hands dirty” (1). Funding of the German Military has remained low under Merkel in 2020 it was 1.40% of GDP, it is estimated that this low spending has left the German Military with enough ammunition to withstand a few days of full combat at best (1). Following Merkel stepping down in 2021 Olaf Scholz became the Chancellor, he wanted to “Beef up” the German military. He pledged $112.7 billion of the 2022 budget to achieve this goal (1). This is following the defence minister saying that “defence has its price” and that Germany must be able to defend its values by military means (1). Essay question: “States in the 21stC must reduce military spending and instead focus on social needs”. Argue for and against this view (30). Week 13 The Ethics of War: JUST WAR: A war that meets certain ethical standards and so is (allegedly) morally justified. PROPORTIONALITY (in war): This holds that the force used must not exceed what is sufficient to ensure military success and should not be greater than the provoking cause (of the war). DISCRIMINATION: Force must be directed at military targets only on the grounds that civilians or non-combatants are "innocent". HUMANITY: Force should not be used against enemy personnel when captured or wounded. JUST CAUSE: The idea that the purpose of a (just) war is to redress a wrong that has been suffered. Usually this is associated with self-defence in response to military attack. JUS IN BELLO: The moral principles governing the conduct of war JUS AD BELLUM: The circumstances under which a state may justly wage war. Essay Question: "The USA has been a force for good in the 21stC". To what extent do you agree or disagree with this view? (30) A/A* borderline The United States of America has undeniably been a major superpower since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, ushering in an era of unipolarity. With both hard and soft power at its disposal, the USA has exerted influence through initiatives such as the war on terror, its involvement in peacekeeping missions, and participation in intergovernmental organisations like the United Nations, NATO, and AUKUS. This essay aims to assess the extent to which the USA has been a force for good in the 21st century, acknowledging positive contributions like its response to the Yazidi genocide, providing military aid to ukraine, and the USA’s positive contribution in various inter-governmental organizations, while critically examining areas of concern that would include the war on terror, the disobeying of international laws and agreements, Guantanamu bay, and its impact towards climate change. In several instances, the USA has demonstrated its commitment to being a force for good on the global stage. One notable example is the response to the Yazidi genocide which took place on the august of 2014, where the US played a pivotal role in humanitarian efforts. The intervention helped save a significant proportion of Yazidi people facing persecution, showcasing the positive impact of American intervention in dire situations. Moreover, the USA has been instrumental in providing military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian war. By supporting Ukraine's self-defence efforts, the US has contributed to safeguarding the sovereignty of a nation facing external aggression. This reflects a positive application of American hard power in aiding a country under threat. The successful elaborations achieved through the USA's involvement in various intergovernmental organisations further emphasise its role as a force for good. Participation in organisations like the United Nations has allowed the USA to contribute to international diplomacy, peacekeeping, and conflict resolution. By engaging in these forums, the USA has sought to foster global cooperation and address pressing issues collectively. On the other hand, a critical examination reveals areas where the USA's actions have raised concerns and led to scepticism about its role as an unequivocal force for good. The war on terror, marked by military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq in 2001 and 2003, resulted in substantial destruction and loss of life. The collateral damage, civilian casualties, and long-term destabilisation of these regions are aspects that question the overall positive impact of US involvement. Furthermore, accusations of the USA disobeying international laws and agreements, especially within the United Nations framework, have been a source of contention. The decision to establish Guantanamo Bay and the use of controversial interrogation methods have sparked debates about the adherence to human rights norms and legal standards, challenging the perception of the USA as an unwavering force for good. Moreover, in the realm of environmental responsibility, the USA's impact on climate change has been a subject of global concern as it still remains the second biggest greenhouse emitter The country's historical contributions to carbon emissions and its withdrawal from international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement/COP21, have led to questions about its commitment to addressing one of the most pressing global challenges. In conclusion, the USA's role as a force for good in the 21st century is complex and multifaceted. Michael Walzer's theory of jus in bello, and jus ad bellum have not been applied by the united states in the war of terror, as the impact caused upon civilian casualties was immense, they however did not fail to try to avoid such losses, but the price of war are the innocent lives lost which on the war on terror adds up to around 400,000. While the nation has undeniably made positive contributions in humanitarian aid, conflict resolution, and international cooperation, critical scrutiny reveals areas of concern, such as the consequences of military interventions, alleged violations of international laws, and its stance on climate change. Moving forward, the USA has the potential to leverage its power for positive change by addressing these concerns, contributing to global stability, and aligning its actions with the principles of justice and sustainability, with more hindered effort by the US and by inter-governmental organisations we could see the US eliminating and decreasing the negative impacts it has on the 21st century, and could be a foster of good. Weel 16: Media, Social media, Misinformation, and fake News. PROPAGANDA - information, ideas, opinions, or images, often only giving one part of an argument, that are broadcast, published, or in some other way spread with the intention of influencing people's opinions. CENSORSHIP - a system in which an authority limits the ideas that people are allowed to express and prevents books, films, works of art, documents, or other kinds of communication from being seen or made available to the public, because they include or support certain ideas. PLURALISM - (in the media) - Media pluralism can either mean a plurality of voices, of analyses, of expressed opinions and issues (internal pluralism), or a plurality of media outlets, of types of media (print, radio, TV or digital) and coexistence of private owned media and public service media (external pluralism). (reporterssansfrontiers_18792.pdf (europa.eu) ). FAKE NEWS - false news stories, often of a sensational nature, created to be widely shared or distributed for the purpose of generating revenue, or promoting or discrediting a public figure, political movement, company, etc. DISINFORMATION - false information, as about a country's military strength or plans, disseminated by a government or intelligence agency in a hostile act of tactical political subversion. More commonly - the deliberately misleading or biased information; manipulated narrative or facts; propaganda. Grade Rubric: A* (24-30) You have mastered this topic, well done! Your knowledge, examples, analysis and evaluation are all excellent. Please continue in this manner! A (21-23) You have almost mastered this topic, well done! Your knowledge, examples, and analysis are all very good. Please now focus on improving your evaluation skills.

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