International Political Issues and Security PDF

International Political Issues and Security Systemic Security (a reminder) Security complex: among independent states which do not expect or do not fear the use of force in relations between them - A security complex is a concept from the field of international relations and security studies that de...

International Political Issues and Security Systemic Security (a reminder) Security complex: among independent states which do not expect or do not fear the use of force in relations between them - A security complex is a concept from the field of international relations and security studies that describes a region where the security concerns of different states are so closely interconnected that they cannot be understood separately. This concept is primarily used in the analysis of regional security dynamics and is often associated with the work of scholars like Barry Buzan. Security community: = a security complex, but conveys the idea of geographical proximity - looking inwards, rel and coop of states , members are close to each others nato→ outside works as a sec complex but inside is a sec community among their members The foundation and enlargements of the organisation April 4, 1949: (12 states) Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Holland, Iceland, Luxembourg, Norway, Italy, Portugal, The United Kingdom, The United States of America 1952: Greece, Turkey 1955: The Federal Republic of Germany- the precondition was a divided status and sep from the DDR 1982: Spain ENLARGEMENTS in the post polar era (1991: dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and of the Soviet Union)  1999: Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary 2004: Bulgaria,, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia 2009: Albania, Croatia 2017: Montenegro 2020: North Macedonia 2023: Finland 2024: Sweden - as outcome of UKR Number of Member States: 32 *nato partnership programs bc of the geo limitation of membership the global partnership program can replace the real membership and facilitate cooperation. EX japan very important partner, ex contribution during afghanistan and also in the anti piracy operation bc of the international waters https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_84336.htm key objective: NATO develops relations with partners based on common values, reciprocity, mutual benefit and mutual respect. Dialogue and cooperation with partners enhances international security, increasing stability and safety in partner countries and in NATO members. It also contributes to upholding the rules-based international order, helping defend the values on which the Alliance is based. *partnerships - why mongolia? special policy on nuclear force and declared itself as non nuclear state - as new zealand that is also a partner, also colombia strategic importance since it impacts the security of US for narcotraffic and other fragmentations and organized crime - NATO also engages with partners in a variety of other areas where it has developed expertise and programmes. These include: Counter-terrorism; Counter-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery; Emerging security challenges, such as those related to cyber defence, energy security and maritime security, including counter-piracy; Civil preparedness. - the former warsaw (czech rep, poland, hun, slovakia) pact states entrance: a longer process: announced in ‘92 during the 1st visegrad meeting where the countries of czech rep poland and hun announced the western and transatlantic orientation and declared the will to join nato as ambition and also the UE - but it took a long time, 1999- which adjustments are needed? ex number-investments, resources and technology (the previous soviet tech must be turned into the US to be compatible) The Visegrád Group was established on 15 February 1991 at a meeting between the President of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, Václav Havel, the President of the Republic of Poland, Lech Wałęsa, and the Prime Minister of the Republic of Hungary, József Antall, in the Hungarian town of Visegrád. The group was created with the aim of moving away from communism and implementing the reforms required for full membership of the Euro-Atlantic institutions, such as NATO and the EU. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia became independent members of the alliance, raising the number of members from three to four. All four members of the Visegrád Group joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. The North Atlantic Treaty (The Washington Treaty) preamble - Article 1 The Parties undertake, as set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, to settle any international dispute in which they may be involved by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security and justice are not endangered, and to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations. → ref to UN since superior status of the treaty the treaty: April 4, 1949: collective defense (12 founding states) - New members may accede to the treaty by invitation - 14 articles only ( Article 5 on collective defense; Article 10 on enlargement (geo limitation to europe); Article 13 on the duration of the treaty - thought as 20 years but then extended)- every decision ex exit of a country depends on US agreement - Member states with a special status (in Norway’s territory, storing nuclear weapons is prohibited, Iceland does not have an army)- important negotiations ex) - MEMBERSHIP - they can enter if invited, under consent of the parties (political committee) (?) ** Countries interested in joining NATO are asked to agree to a membership action plan tailored to the individual country and potentially requiring political, legal, military and security reforms. The following steps outline the process of joining NATO: Step 1: Accession talks with NATO in Brussels. This involves discussions to determine if an invitee meets the requirements of NATO membership. Step 2: Letter of intent sent to NATO secretary-general. This involves an invitee providing written confirmation of its acceptance of NATO commitments and a timetable of reforms. Step 3: Accession protocols signed by NATO members. This step allows an invitee to become a party to the Washington Treaty, which formed NATO. Step 4: Accession protocols ratified by NATO member governments according to their national procedures. In the US, this requires a two-thirds majority of the Senate to pass the required legislation. Step 5: Secretary-general invites the potential member to accede to the treaty. Step 6: Invitee accedes to the treaty according to their national procedures. Step 7: After depositing their instruments of accession with the US Department of State, an invitee becomes a NATO member. What are the military requirements?  NATO is resourced through the direct and indirect contributions of its members. For 2023, NATO’s military budget was set at 1.96 billion euros. Member countries contribute to the budget based on a cost-sharing formula derived from the gross national product of each country. In 2006, the alliance’s defence ministers agreed to commit a minimum of 2 percent of their GDPs to defence spending. So far, only eight countries adhere to this guideline: Greece, the US, Lithuania, Poland, the UK, Croatia, Estonia and Latvia. Political Goals - To safeguard the freedom and independence of Member States - Legal basis under International Law: Article 51 of the UN Charter (the inherent right of individual or collective defence) - NATO is an inter-governmental organization (NOT supranational); decisions by consensus - Transatlantic relationship (European members + USA, Canada);collective defence; joint planning, economic and scientific cooperation - In the bipolar world order until 1989, focused on eu to prevent enlargement of warsaw pact then fast transformation, no purpose? no, since the world is not at peace - coop with EU and UN for pk, also new role in crisis management, counterterrorism but also new challenges as cyber… United military organization - A framework for defense: a network of military commands; of telecommunications and information systems - In peacetime most NATO forces are under national command (except: NATO Integrated Air and Missile Defence System (NATINAMDS); joint staffs of NATO commands) a very complex political and military structures (links in moodle to see) Two guidelines for functioning - Mutual recognition of the sovereignty of participatory states, and shaping common policy; - National commitment (developing capabilities for security)- guidelines to fill the gaps in technology especially-commitment to the share defense policy and commitment to constant development (2%) of the gdp, Major institution - North Atlantic Council (sessions twice a year; from Ambassador to Head of State level) - Defence Planning Committee (sessions twice a year; defence ministers) - Nuclear Planning Group (sessions twice a year; defence ministers) - Secretary General (presides at NAC sessions; mediates and facilitates consultation in the alliance; coordinates external relations; shapes NATO policy; a spokesman for the organisation - International Secretariat (since 1951; about 1,200 employees  - Military Committee (Chiefs of Staff; directives and proposals on military leadership and strategic issues) The current SC is Mark Rutte Since 1 October 2024; term in office until 2028 (can be extended) Strategic commands: - allied command operations ACO : ACO’s primary mission is to deliver effective and efficient command and control of NATO operations. This includes collective defense missions, crisis response operations, and cooperative military engagements to ensure the security of the Alliance. It manages day-to-day military activities, implements defense strategies, and conducts military planning to respond to emerging threats. ACO is tasked with overseeing operations both within NATO territories and abroad, which includes air, land, maritime, and special operations forces. Leadership: Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) The SACEUR is one of the most senior military positions in NATO and is appointed by the North Atlantic Council (NAC). This role is typically held by a high-ranking U.S. general or admiral. The SACEUR has the authority to command NATO forces during operations and ensures military readiness and effective response to any security threats. Types of Operations Managed by ACO Air Policing: Protecting NATO airspace with fighter jets ready to intercept and respond to threats. Maritime Patrols: Securing strategic waterways and deterring piracy and terrorism at sea. Land Operations: Deploying NATO forces for deterrence and defense, as seen in Eastern Europe. Cyber Defense: Coordinating efforts to defend against cyber threats and enhance the resilience of NATO's digital infrastructure. HQ (Headquarters): Mons, Belgium Joint Force Command Headquarters: JFC HQ; Brunssum, Holland Joint Force Command Headquarters: JFC HQ; Naples, Italy - Allied Command Transformation: ACT: ACT is tasked with developing new concepts and capabilities to ensure NATO remains effective in a rapidly changing security environment. It focuses on future-proofing the Alliance by anticipating emerging threats and fostering the adoption of advanced technologies. The command promotes military interoperability and standardization across member nations, ensuring that forces from different countries can work seamlessly together. The Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (SACT) leads ACT. This position is typically held by a senior military officer from the French Armed Forces, reflecting the shared leadership and collaboration within NATO. SACT reports to the North Atlantic Council (NAC) and works closely with ACO to ensure that operational needs align with long-term transformation goals. Allied Command Transformation: ACT HQ; Norfolk, Virginia  Transformation of military capabilities to adapt to the changing security environment Analysis and evaluation; lessons learnt; facilitates interoperability (da qui in poi non ha spiegato) NATO PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMS - Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (all NATO members + Partnership for Peace countries) (1994: Partnership for Peace Program: PfP) - Mediterranean Dialogue - Partners Across the Globe Home page of partnership programmes: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/51288.htm Interactive map with information on Member States, partnerships, missions and Enhanced Forward Defence on the Eastern Flank: https://www.nato.int/nato-on-the-map/#lat=54.6871555&lon=25.2796514&zoom=-1&layer-4& infoBox=66 NATO 2030: United for a New Era (report submitted in 2020) Lack of unity in various eras (e.g.: lack of abilities; „soft security”; real operations) 2017: President Trump: emphasis on terrorism, migration, threat posed by Russia, Eastern and Southern flank 2019: President Macron: „ NATO is „brain dead”” 2020: a 10-member committee submits their report (assessment of the security and political environment; major conclusions and proposals) The NATO 2030 report lays out a strategic roadmap to prepare the Alliance for the challenges of the next decade, emphasizing the need for unity, adaptability, and innovation. It calls for strengthened political cohesion, enhanced defense capabilities, a proactive approach to emerging technologies, and strategic responses to the rise of China and hybrid threats. The overarching goal is to ensure that NATO remains a strong, united, and adaptable alliance capable of defending its members and promoting international stability. 1. Future vision: adaptation to the new security environment; more unity in decision-making and action 2. The security and political environment: Core tasks (collective defence, cooperative security, crisis response operations =CRO) Confrontation with Russia (deterrence and dialogue) Competition with China (proposal: consultative body) Terrorism Cyber- and hybrid warfare Effective nuclear deterrence, arms control; space security Centre of Excellence on Climate Change and Security 3. Proposals Political cohesion and consultation Strengthening commitment Increasing role of NAC Centre of Excellence for Democratic Resilience Volunteer ad hoc coalitions inside the alliance NATO University Institutionalised link between NATO and the EU (NATO International Staff and European External Action Service =EEAS) Principles of democracy, freedom, rule of law; stabilisation Interest based partnership programmes (not geography-based;theme-based) and regular evaluation Extension of partnership: NATO−Pacific Partnership Council; India, Sweden, Finland; Ukraine, Georgia) Mediterranean Dialogue (MD), Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI), African Union (AU) NATO 2022 strategic concept Adopted at the Madrid Summit 29−30 June, 2022 3 core tasks: deterrence and defence; crisis prevention and management, cooperative security (to ensure collective defence + the security of the Allies) Assessment of the strategic environment Euro-Atlantic area not at peace Russian Federation (threat; Baltic, Black- and Mediterranean Sea regions) The People’s Republic of China (stated ambitions) Conflict and instability in Africa and the Middle East Cyberspace contested Erosion of the arms control and non-proliferation architecture Climate change Deterrence and Defence Preparation for high-intensity, multi-domain warfighting against nuclear-armed peer competitors (domains of operation: air, land, sea + cyberspace and space) Persistent presence on land, at sea, in the air (strengthened integrated air and missile defence) Maintain secure use and access to cyberspace and space (an attack may invoke Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty =collective defence) Hybrid tactics (=coercive use of political and economic measures, energy and information →may reach the level of an armed attack→may invoke Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty) Crisis Prevention and Management Deploy and sustain crisis management, stabilisation and counter-terrorism operations (including at strategic distance) Ensure human security including the protection of civilians (partners: United Nations; European Union; Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe; African Union) Cooperative Security Open Door policy (consistent with Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty) Partnership with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia and Ukraine Essential partner: the European Union (defence force: complementary to, and interoperable with NATO; avoiding duplications) Strategic importance: Western Balkans; Black Sea region; Middle East; North Africa; Sahel region; Indo-Pacific Tackling the impact of climate change on security ** CERCA COORDINAMENTO SU USO FORZA NATO E UNSC - OSCE → video : 4 special things for osce : it includes three continents eu asia north america, it is the largest regional security, they promote the dialogue for sec. issues, it is a platform for joint action, conflict management but also eco dev so it is about many fields. The helsinki pact ‘75, intergov org is the shape, in which all states are equal, consensus and binding basis, each year a country (foreign min) is helding the presidency - SG - why three diff continents? during the starting of the helsinki conf the NATO allies said US should be invited tg with canada to have a safe europe: important to participate for the other counties and asia bc of the URSS also consensus is particular since different - another special thing is the presidency, not elected but every year a state rotating so it could be brought to bing and advance its own interests - problems and opportunities Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) The significance of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe 1973-5 → great achievement - it marked the 1st time in which the western and eastern blocks had a dialogue - A dialogue between the Western and the Eastern bloc in the Cold War - A multilateral forum; détente - The Charter of Paris for a New Europe (1990)- was adopted by a summit meeting of most European governments in addition to those of Canada, the United States and the Soviet Union, in Paris from 19–21 November 1990. The charter was established on the foundation of the Helsinki Accords and was further amended in the 1999 Charter for European Security. Together, these documents form the agreed basis for the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. However, not all OSCE member countries have signed the treaty. The Charter was one of many attempts to seize the opportunity of the fall of Communism by actively inviting the former Eastern Bloc countries into the ideological framework of the West. - CSCE transformed into OSCE (from conference to organization) ** the helsinki pact → The Helsinki Final Act, also known as Helsinki Accords or Helsinki Declaration, was the document signed at the closing meeting of the third phase of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) held in Helsinki, Finland, between 30 July and 1 August 1975, following two years of negotiations known as the Helsinki Process. All then-existing European countries except Andorra and Hoxhaist Albania, as well as the United States and Canada (altogether 35 participating states), signed the Final Act in an attempt to improve the détente between the East and the West. The Helsinki Accords, however, were not binding as they did not have treaty status that would have to be ratified by parliaments. Sometimes the term "Helsinki pact(s)" was also used unofficially. 57 member states 11 partner states (Afghanistan, Algeria, Australia, Egypt, Israel,Japan, Jordan, Morocco,The Republic of Korea, Thailand, Tunisia) same partnership policy of nato and eu they are participating states NOT members, since treaty is not ratified by parliaments but only signed 2023: 2,267 total staff; OSCE budget for 2021: €139 million + €39 million for extra-budgetary projects 2021: + €109.8 million for OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine and for OSCE Observer Mission at the Russian Checkpoints Donetsk and Gukovo update: www.osce.org/whatistheosce/factsheet Three baskets of the Helsinki final act signed in 1 aug 1975 - 1) questions of European security (Politico-military security) - (2) cooperation in economics, science and technology, and environmental issues (Economic and environmental security) - (3) humanitarian and cultural cooperation (Human security) (+ fourth basket on monitoring implementation) in the 1st one → Declaration on principle guiding relations between participating states - the decalogue I. Sovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty II. Refraining from the threat or use of force III. Inviolability of frontiers IV. Territorial integrity of States V. Peaceful settlement of disputes VI. Non-intervention in internal affairs VII. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief VIII. Equal rights and self-determination of peoples IX. Co-operation among States X. Fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law Helsinki Conference: worked on the principle of consensus - A complex approach to security - OSCE now: a regional organization for cooperative security - Security enhancement and confidence building - Treaty on Open Skies: signed in 1992, came into effect in 2002 (2020: the USA withdrew; 2021: Russia withdrew) - The Treaty on Open Skies establishes a program of unarmed aerial surveillance flights over the entire territory of its participants. The treaty is designed to enhance mutual understanding and confidence by giving all participants, regardless of size, a direct role in gathering information about military forces and activities of concern to them - Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE Treaty): signed in 1990, came into effect in 1992 (=arms ceilings); 2023: Russia withdrew from the Treaty; USA + NATO allies suspended participation– was negotiated and concluded during the last years of the Cold War and established comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment in Europe (from the Atlantic to the Urals) and mandated the destruction of excess weaponry. The treaty proposed equal limits for the two "groups of states-parties", the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact. In 2007, Russia "suspended" its participation in the treaty, and on 10 March 2015, citing NATO's alleged de facto breach of the Treaty, Russia formally announced it was "completely" halting its participation in it as of the next day The Charter of Paris for a New Europe (1990) Heads of State or Government welcomed the new historical era of a (re-)united Europe, peace and democracy** Milestones in the evolution of OSCE 1975-1990: a forum for negotiation – not an international organization yet Paris Summit (1990) – decision to convert into an organization Various organs established (1992) e.g. the Parliamentary Assembly, Forum for Security and Cooperation Budapest Summit (1994) – Ministerial and Permanent Councils established; new name: OSCE - The Charter of Paris for a New Europe (1990)- was adopted by a summit meeting of most European governments in addition to those of Canada, the United States and the Soviet Union, in Paris from 19–21 November 1990. The charter was established on the foundation of the Helsinki Accords and was further amended in the 1999 Charter for European Security. Together, these documents form the agreed basis for the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. However, not all OSCE member countries have signed the treaty. The Charter was one of many attempts to seize the opportunity of the fall of Communism by actively inviting the former Eastern Bloc countries into the ideological framework of the West. Summit meetings Secretary General of the OSCE Helga Maria Schmid appointed in 2020 for a three-year term; term extended until September 2024 Chairmanship of the OSCE- Is held by Malta in 2024 Chairperson-in-Office: Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign and European Affairs and Trade of Malta, Ian Borg  territorial issue of Transnistria (cerca) OSCE crisis management - Soft power - Security areas not requiring military power OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine and OSCE Observer Mission at the Russian Checkpoints Gukovo and Donetsk Mandates expired on 31 March, 2022 * TRSNSNISTRIA - Transnistria, or the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (PMR), is a narrow strip of land between the Dniester River and Ukraine. It declared independence from Moldova in 1990, but no United Nations member state recognizes its sovereignty. The region remains de jure part of Moldova but operates de facto as a separate state with its own government, military, currency, and borders. - Russian Influence: The region is viewed as a geopolitical tool for Moscow to exert influence in Moldova and the wider region. The presence of Russian troops contravenes Moldova's sovereignty and is a point of contention with the West. - Tensions with Moldova: Moldova advocates for reintegration, but negotiations remain deadlocked. Transnistria’s leadership seeks recognition as an independent state or integration with Russia. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) plays a key role in addressing the Transnistrian issue through diplomacy and conflict resolution. OSCE’s Involvement 1. Mediation in the "5+2" Format: ○ The OSCE mediates the negotiation process known as the "5+2" talks, involving: Moldova and Transnistria (the parties). Russia, Ukraine, and the OSCE (mediators). The European Union (EU) and the United States (observers). ○ The goal is to find a mutually acceptable resolution that respects Moldova’s territorial integrity while granting some form of autonomy to Transnistria. 2. Peacekeeping and Monitoring: ○ The OSCE monitors the security situation and facilitates dialogue to prevent escalation. ○ It emphasizes demilitarization and confidence-building measures between the sides. 3. Human Rights and Democracy Promotion: ○ The OSCE advocates for improving human rights and democratic governance in Transnistria, which remains an authoritarian regime with limited freedoms. EU Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Check the Timeline for the answers to the following questions. 1. In what way does the Coordinated Annual Review on Defence (CARD, 2017) enhance European defense cooperation? - having an overview of the existing defense capabilities - identify potential cooperation areas, - the final aim is a synchronized and mutual defense plan 2. Which body of the EU initiated the creation of the European Defence Fund (EDF, 2017)? the eu commission 3. What is the function of the European Peace Facility (EPF, 2021)? the role is providing military equipment and security infrastructure to EU partners following human rights standards 4. Which are the practice - oriented features of defence and security cooperation in the 2022 Strategic Compass of the EU? they are concrete, precise and actionable proposals with a precise timetable for their implementation to improve eu resilience and capacity in solving crises TIMELINE 1948: Treaty of Brussels (idea of common defense policy)- was the founding treaty of the Western Union (WU)and served as the founding treaty of the Western European Union (WEU) until its termination in 2010.The treaty was intended to provide Western Europe with a bulwark against the communist threat and to bring greater collective security.- it revived the idea of common sec and def policy. - The idea of a common defence policy for Europe dates back to 1948 when the UK, France, and the Benelux signed the Treaty of Brussels. 1954: Western European Union (mutual defense clause) a kind of forum for discussing these issues and attempt to create collective defense - which remained until the late 1990s, together with NATO, the principal forum for consultation and dialogue on security and defence in Europe - in 2010 dissolved, the lisbon treaty entered into force in 2009 1957: The Treaty of Rome: European Economic Community (6 founders: France, The Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, the Benelux States) - idea neglected in the idea of EU - eco went into the focus and economic interest for prosperity Diverse legal status of members (e.g. France: a nuclear power) common security and defense policy is difficult to develop EU: shared practice of certain elements of sovereignty of Member States (MS) (agrarian-; duty-; foreign; immigration policy) BUT: inter-governmental decisions on security and defense policy affairs security policy of eu evolved as result of Maastricht, area in the framework of integration, one of the pillars, it is important bc of the intro of the pillars structure - 1992 Petersberg Tasks Following the end of the Cold War and the subsequent conflicts in the Balkans, it became clear that the EU needed to assume its responsibilities in the field of conflict prevention and crisis management. The conditions under which military units could be deployed were already agreed by the WEU Council in 1992 but the so-called “Petersberg Tasks” were now integrated in the 1999 Treaty of Amsterdam. In addition, the post of the “High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy” was created to allow the Union to speak with ‘one face and one voice’ on foreign policy matters.  1992: Treaty of Maastricht: foreign and security policy placed in the framework of integration 1999: treaty of Amsterdam - adopted by EU Member States in June 1997 and entered into force in May 1999. The Treaty codified a number of new structures and tasks for the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and, although it did not create a common defense policy, it did increase responsibilities in the realms of peacekeeping and humanitarian work i.a. by creating closer links with the WEU. decisions on military and civilian capabilities deemed necessary: establishment of European Security and Defence Policy - why? yugoslavian wars and dissolution of urss before and new space and ambitions for enlargements 1999: Helsinki Headline Goals - set as an obj the creation of some level of eu defense policy and defense force, The Helsinki Headline Goal was a military capability target set for 2003 during the December 1999 Helsinki European Council meeting with the aim of developing a future European Rapid Reaction Force. 1999 - At the Cologne European Council in 1999, Member States reaffirmed the Union’s willingness to develop capabilities for autonomous action, backed up by credible military forces. A key development was the “Berlin Plus agreement” giving the EU, under certain conditions, access to NATO assets and capabilities.(2003) - a comprehensive package of arrangements finalised in early 2003 between the EU and the NATO that allows the EU to make use of NATO assets and capabilities for EU-led crisis management operations. 2003: the first EU peace operation in Bosnia (EUFOR Althea) After 2003: more than 20 crisis response operations 2003: publishing the first security strategy of the EU→ In 2003 the former High Representative Javier Solana was tasked by the Member States to develop a Security Strategy for Europe. The document entitled ‘A Secure Europe in a Better World’, analyzed for the first time the EU’s security environment and identified key security challenges and subsequent political implications for the EU. The implementation of the document was revised in 2008.  The security strategy of the eu 2003 (Summary: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:r00004) 5 major security challenges to Europe: Terrorism Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Regional conflicts Failed (collapsed) states Organised crime - then 2009 Treaty of Lisbon - The Lisbon Treaty came into force in December 2009 and was a cornerstone in the development of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). The treaty included both a mutual assistance and a solidarity clause and allowed for the creation of the European External Action Service (EEAS) under the authority of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy/ Vice-President of the European Commission (HR/VP). The two distinct functions of the post give the HR/VP the possibility to bring all the necessary EU assets together and to apply a "comprehensive approach" to EU crisis management. The security strategy of the eu 2016 - The "Global Strategy for the European Union's Foreign and Security Policy" Submitted by Federica Mogherini; A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy (Full text: https://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/top_stories/pdf/eugs_review_web.pdf Integrated approach to conflicts; regional cooperation; global governance 5 main directions of cooperation: The Maghreb Region and the Middle East Turkey Balanced relations with the Gulf Region Enhance cooperation: North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Horn of Africa,the Middle East Support African peace and development Tools of soft diplomacy - Joseph Nye: soft, hard and smart power - European security strategy: response to challenges should not be solely military; complex crisis management: international agreements, political and economic pressure, intelligence, humanitarian operations, reconstuction Objectives: continue Transatlantic cooperation; stabilize the neighborhood of the EU – this can be achieved with instruments of softpower - The Treaty of Lisbon Adopted :18 Oct. 2007; Entered into force: 1 Dec. 2009 In replacement of „European Security and Defence Policy”: – > Common Security and Defence Policy =CSDP Changes under the Treaty of Lisbon - declaration of legal perso of eu - from maastricht it was left out - the predecessor of the eu (the three communities) had a legal perso but after the merger it was not anymore -The Treaty of Lisbon streamlined the EU’s legal personality: Article 47 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) explicitly grants the EU legal personality. It merged the European Community into the EU, ending the dual structure. The EU became the sole legal entity, capable of acting within the competences conferred by its Member States. - Permanent President heading the European Council Convenes 4 summits per year Incumbent president: Charles Michel (since 2019; for 2.5 years) President from 1 December 2024: António Costa Rotating presidency of Member States in the Council of the European Union (every 6 months); working in „trios” (The current trio is made up of the presidencies of Belgium, Hungary, Poland) - Foreign Affairs Council = FAC responsible for the EU's external action, which includes foreign policy, defence and security, trade, development cooperation and humanitarian aid Composed of the foreign ministers of the MSs Meetings chaired by the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, currently Josep Borrell Fontelles. The High Representative is assisted by the European External Action Service (EEAS) FAC also brings together: defence ministers, development ministers, trade ministers Ensure unity, consistency, effectiveness - Establishment of the position of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy/Vice President of the European Commission Currently: Josep Borell Fontelles (2009-14 ashton and 2014-19 mogherini) High Representative/Vice President from 1 December 2024: Kaja Kallas EU's chief diplomat is charged with shaping and carrying out the EU's foreign and security policy: "Common Foreign and Security Policy'" (CFSP) and the „Common Security and Defence Policy” (CSDP). - Establishment of the European External Action Service Assisting in the work of the High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy; new diplomatic corps Officials delegated from Secretariat General of the European Commission and from the General Secretariat of the Council + the Foreign Ministries of the MSs - Declaration of the legal personality of the EU (the predecessors of the EU had a legal personality, but not the EU until 2009) Significance: as a legal personality, the EU can participate in negotiations and make legally binding agreements - Clause on solidarity and mutual assistance In case of a terrorist attack against a member state, or, of a natural or man-made disaster In case of an armed attack against a member state, assistance by other MSs to the attacked Problem: some MSs object to transforming the EU into a (military) alliance Nevertheless: close cooperation with NATO, e.g. : Warsaw NATO Summit (2016): leaders of 22 NATO- and EU member states took part (193 point NATO communique) da sapere – art 42.7 of the teu 7. If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defense policy of certain Member States. Commitments and cooperation in this area shall be consistent with commitments under the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, which, for those States which are members of it, remains the foundation of their collective defense and the forum for its implementation. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX%3A12008M042 eu is not a military alliance “aid and assistance” - not military directly, this gives space for action but NATO remains the primary forum and common space for joint action in defense and security and collective defense relations nato-ue - Article 47 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU), which grants the EU legal personality, plays a subtle but crucial role in this relationship by enabling the EU to act independently in security and defense matters while engaging as a cohesive actor with NATO. The EU and NATO share a complex but complementary relationship based on several factors: 1. Overlapping Memberships Shared Members: 21 of the 27 EU Member States are NATO members, creating significant institutional and operational overlap. Non-NATO EU Members: Countries like Austria, Finland, Ireland, and Sweden (prior to its NATO accession) have traditionally pursued neutrality but participate in CSDP operations. Non-EU NATO Members: The United States, Canada, Turkey, and others are key NATO members but are outside the EU framework. This dual membership creates incentives for cooperation but also tensions, particularly when strategic priorities differ or when non-EU NATO members, such as Turkey, clash with EU policies. 2. Institutional Framework The EU’s legal personality under Article 47 TEU allows it to engage as an independent entity with NATO, participating in agreements and consultations. Key cooperative frameworks include: The Berlin Plus Agreement (2003): This allows the EU to use NATO assets and capabilities for EU-led operations when NATO opts not to act, ensuring complementarity rather than duplication. Joint Declarations (2016, 2018): These agreements strengthen strategic cooperation in areas like cybersecurity, counterterrorism, and military mobility. 3. Complementarity CSDP’s Focus: The EU prioritizes crisis management and civilian-military operations outside its territory (e.g., training missions in Africa, counter-piracy missions). NATO’s Focus: NATO emphasizes collective defense, deterrence, and high-intensity military operations (e.g., NATO's Article 5 commitments and operations in Afghanistan). By focusing on different but complementary tasks, the two organizations avoid redundancy and pool resources effectively. Tensions: The EU’s strategic autonomy, a growing objective under CSDP, seeks to reduce dependence on NATO and the U.S.push for autonomy sometimes causes friction with NATO, particularly among Member States like Poland and the Baltic nations, which prioritize NATO’s deterrent role against Russian aggression. also for ex the issue of ressources (nato worries about less resources. EDA - established in 2004 the obj is to support MS with advice on development of defense capabilities in crisis response and crisis management, Defence research, defence industry cooperation, European defence market, common background to defence industry Under EDA: the Satellite Centre of the EU (Torrejon, Spain), which operates the European GPS network PESCO 2017 - Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in defence matters; in EU missions (though: military heterogeneity) Goal: establish a group of states within the EU, which has major financial and military operational capacity - Treaty-based framework and process to deepen defence cooperation amongst EU Member States who are capable and willing to do so CARD (2017) provide Member States and the EU with a picture of the existing defence capability landscape in Europe and to identify potential cooperation areas. Over time, this will lead to a gradual synchronisation and mutual adaptation of national defence planning cycles and capability development practices which, in turn, will ensure a more optimal use and coherence of national defence spending plans. Coordinated Annual Review on Defence (CARD) Overview of defence capabilities Synchronisation of efforts (national defence spending plans) Cooperation on defence planning cycles European Defence Fund (EDF) Established by the European Commission Support for defence research and development For a competitive and innovative defence industry - A Strategic Compass for the European Union (2022) To reinforce security and defence policy by 2030 The Compass covers all the aspects of the security and defense policy and is structured around four pillars: act, invest, partner and secure. - Act: crisis response (rapid deployment capacity of 5,000 troops + 200 CSDP experts; within 30 days; live exercises on land and sea; European Peace Facility)  - Secure: hybrid response, cyber defense policy, cyber diplomatic toolbox; enhancement of intelligence capabilities; space strategy; EU as a maritime security actor - Invest: increase defense expenditure, strengthen defense industrial base; boost innovation; reduce technological/industrial dependencies - Partner: NATO, UN, OSCE, AU, ASEAN + regional partners; bilateral partnerships: e.g. the US, Canada, Norway, the UK, Japan tailored partnerships: Western Balkan, EU neighborhood; Africa, Asia, Latin America Participation in CSDP missions + capacity building the 1st strategic concept- it is a novelty also in his nickname - EUROPEAN UNION RAPID DEPLOYMENT CAPACITY The European Union supports peace and stability in its neighborhood and beyond. The EU needs to be able to react quickly, robustly and effectively to conflicts and crises outside its borders. To that end, the EU will develop a Rapid Deployment Capacity (EU RDC) consisting of up to 5,000 troops. COMPOSITION - Modified EU Battlegroups - Modules composed of available Member States military forces and capabilities - Strategic enablers (e.g. strategic airlift, space based communications, medical assets, cyber defense capabilities, ISR capabilities) - Tailored force packages including air, land, maritime, space and cyber components - Different levels of operational readiness - Longer stand-by periods → Allows tailoring the capacity to the mission but problem is how can we set and decide for the different national components and contributions types of peace operations 1- Conflict prevention 2-Peacemaking 3- Peacekeeping 4- Peace enforcement 5- Peace building and… 6) Humanitarian assistance nato - part of / un after the conflict - UN in the international peace and security architecture PPLS OF PEACEKEEPING 1. Consent of the parties 2. Impartiality - the peacekeepers should act following the aim of the mandate ex) civilian protection regardless the belonging, unbiased 3. Non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate - also self protection KFOR mission in Kosovo approximately 4,500 Allied and partner troops operate in Kosovo as part of NATO's Kosovo Force (KFOR) after Kosovo's declaration of independence in February 2008, NATO agreed to maintain its presence legal basis: UN Security Council Resolution 1244 KFOR has helped to create a professional and multi-ethnic Kosovo Security Force (a lightly armed force responsible for security tasks) NATO strongly supports the European Union-sponsored Dialogue between Belgrade and Pristina. - 2009: Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) „soft power”: a broad array of civilian instruments: economic, social and diplomatic (preventive diplomacy, conflict prevention) EU crisis management often displays a very civilian mindset Civilian Headline Goals (since 2000): policing, the rule of law, civil administration and civil protection as four priority areas (civilian crisis management) Military Headline Goals (since 2003): rapid response, deployable forces with combat support elements (military capabilities for crisis management)  - There are situations in which a quick and decisive military reaction is necessary to save lives and prevent protracted conflicts and violence. - 2004: the „battlegroup concept” (small, multi-national European rapid response force) - 2007: fully operational EU Battlegroups - battalion-sized (about 1,500 personnel strong) units - are to be deployed at a distance of 6,000 km from Brussels OSCE crisis management - Soft power - Security areas not requiring military power - OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine and OSCE Observer Mission at the Russian Checkpoints Gukovo and Donetsk Mandates expired on 31 March, 2022 THE UN IS THE ONLY ONE UNIVERSAL AUTHORITY ABLE TO ENFORCE FOR PEACEKEEPING OPS, the mil contribution by member state is still the more active Nato - mil cap for all the other missions of the others, involved in building EU complete civilian approach OSCE soft power, hr, building democracy, civil field ops