Geography MYP 4 & 5 Notes PDF

Unit 2: Understanding Hazards - look at Understanding Hazards 1.pdf on desktop for more Natural Disasters: any catastrophic event caused by nature or the Earth's natural processes. – Some disasters cause more loss of lives than others and population density affects the death count as well Tectonic...

Unit 2: Understanding Hazards - look at Understanding Hazards 1.pdf on desktop for more Natural Disasters: any catastrophic event caused by nature or the Earth's natural processes. – Some disasters cause more loss of lives than others and population density affects the death count as well Tectonic geophysical processes: processes caused by the movement and interaction of Earth's tectonic plates. Examples of Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis. Geomorphological geophysical processes: processes that shape the Earth's surface through erosion, deposition, and landform development. Examples of Natural Disasters: Landslides, avalanches, rockfalls. Atmospheric geophysical processes: processes involving the Earth's atmosphere, often driven by weather patterns and climate. Examples of Natural Disasters: Hurricanes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, heatwaves. Biological geophysical processes: processes linked to the interaction of living organisms with the environment, often involving the spread of organisms or diseases. Examples of Natural Disasters: Locust swarms, algal blooms, pandemics caused by zoonotic diseases (e.g., COVID-19). Magnitude: the size of a geophysical hazard event & is measured by the amount of energy or material produced by the event e.g: the magnitude of an earthquake is measured by the amount of energy released when 2 of the Earth’s plates move past each other e.g: magnitude for an avalanche is found by its speed, volume and density of snow. Specific scales are used to measure natural hazards. e.g: the Richter scale for Earthquakes, the Volcano Explosivity Index of volcanic eruptions, the Saffir-Simpson scale for hurricanes and the European Avalanche Danger Scale. Frequency: the number of hazardous events of a certain magnitude that occur a given period of time. Some hazards are periodic meaning that they happen at periodic intervals Earthquakes are an example of this since they are almost predictable due to build-up of strain along faults. Geomorphological or atmospheric hazards are seasonal, such as lightning or fires Global context: Scientific and technical innovation Plate tectonics theory: scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean (existing under the earth's surface) movements. Explains how mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes form. In plate tectonics, Earth’s outermost layer, or lithosphere—made up of the crust and upper mantle—is broken into large rocky plates. Continental drift theory: proposed by Alfred Wegener - it said that a supercontinent called Pangaea began to break into pieces, its parts moving away from one another which fragmented into the continents we have today. – To support his theory, Wegener pointed to matching rock formations and similar fossils in Brazil and West Africa. – In addition, South America and Africa looked like they could fit together like puzzle pieces. Phases of disaster management Volcanoes - Volcanic eruptions can lead to flash floods, landslides, tsunamis and earthquakes. Landslides - the movement of rock, soil, or debris down a slope due to gravity. Causes: Deforestation Earthquakes Heavy rainfall Volcanic eruptions causing slope failure Human activities like mining, construction Impacts: Burial of settlements Road blockages Destruction of vegetation Loss of life Loss of property Soil degradation & erosion Measures: Reforestation Early warning system Slope stabilization E.g. Kedarnath Landslide (India, 2013) – caused by glacial outburst and monsoon rains. Nyiragongo volcano notes – In the eastern region of the DRC, signs of an ongoing war are everywhere yet tourists are still visiting the place to hike up the Nyiragongo – These tourists are under the protection of armed guards to deter an attack by rebel soldiers who are very active in the region. – Another source of danger = volcanic fumes and sulphuric dioxide – Despite all these dangers and threats, about 50 tourists reach the top of the volcano every month – Tourism in the DRC fuels the economy and provides the youth with more job opportunities. – Located in the Democratic Republic of the Congo – Active volcano – Takes 5 hours to climb it – 3500 metres high – There is a huge crate 800 metres deep – There is also a blazing cauldron with glowing lava – On the 17th of January 2002, the volcano erupted and lava flowed down to the outskirts of Goma where there were more than 250,000 inhabitants & 15-20% of the city was destroyed by two powerful lava flows & 200 people died – Local residents used the lava stone to rebuild the city – Activity of the volcano is being carefully observed – It is predicted that the Nyiragongo may erupt again – For now it is safe to visit this volcano = the DRC government has assured people that there are no rebels near the volcano and tourism can start again Case study: (Who, What, Where, When and Why) To begin with, natural disasters such as volcanoes are a part of the natural world and its laws and provide humans with an opportunity to adapt environments to their needs. More specifically, a volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through which lava, ash and gases erupt. Volcanoes generally erupt at the boundaries of moving tectonic plates and a large number of volcanoes are present in the “Ring of Fire.” The main reasons for this volcanic eruption was tectonic activity and magma formation. When constructive plate boundaries diverge from one another, the Earth’s crust is pulled apart which creates a pathway for hot magma to flow to the surface. Nyiragongo was formed by the East African rift because of the slow tearing of the African tectonic plate around twenty two million years ago. As we see an increase in scientific and technical innovation, new systems are prominent in core countries to prevent extensive damage and risk due to natural disasters like volcanoes and for the betterment of communities. However, countries in the periphery and semi-periphery still see limited technological advancements in this field, resulting in a great deal of destruction of mankind and infrastructure. This case study highlights the details regarding the eruption of the Nyiragongo volcano located in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a country in the periphery which is known for its catastrophic eruptions since the early twentieth century. The Nyiragongo volcano is an extremely famous tourist spot in the Democratic Republic of Congo and is located 3470 metres high. Despite signs of an ongoing war in the Eastern side of the DRC, detrimental volcanic fumes, harmful sulphuric dioxide and rebel soldiers, tourism is very popular in this country. This is due to the spectacular sights from the top of the volcano that can be observed and the large lava lake present there. In addition, since rebel soldiers are very active in this region, tourists that are visiting the city of Goma and the volcano are protected by armed guards to deter attacks from rebel soldiers. One instance of the eruption of the Nyiragongo was on the 17th of January, 2002 when lava flowed out to the outskirts of Goma about twenty kilometres away, where more than two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants were present. About fifteen to twenty percent of the city was destroyed by two powerful and destructive lava flows, forty five people died within twenty four hours and two hundred casualties occurred in total during this tragic event. Also, hundreds of people in the Goma area fled to Rwanda to protect their lives and attain safety from this natural disaster. After the colossal infrastructure loss faced by the city, local residents used the lava stone to rebuild Goma. Nyiragongo has erupted thirty five times in the past and is considered as the most active volcano in Africa. Today, it takes almost five hours to climb to the top of the Nyiragongo and approximately fifty tourists climb it till its peak every month to see the beautiful blazing cauldron with glowing lava. Furthermore, the Democratic Republic Congo’s economy is fueled by the extensive tourism present in the country which also provides youth with an opportunity to work. While it is safe for tourists to visit the volcano currently, the activity of the Nyiragongo volcano is being observed to date and it is predicted that it may erupt again. Therefore, it is encouraged that people living in the area and tourists stay aware of their surroundings and be prepared for another volcanic eruption. To conclude, processes and solutions are gradually changing in the Democratic Republic of Congo to address the ever-lasting risk posed by volcanoes on humans and the built environment. Consequences and responsibility will keep on growing in these places of the world, which are affected by calamitous occurings such as volcanoes. The people living near the Nyiragongo will have to adhere to their environment and learn the importance of adaptation. Hurricanes Hurricanes can reach wind speeds of up to 160 miles/hour Can cause (unleash) 2.4 trillion gallons of rain a day Strongest winds sustained in recorded tropical cyclones is 195 miles/hour aka 85 metres a second Avalanche Avalanches are a form of natural disasters and occur due a quick flow of snow, ice and rocks down a slope. 90% of avalanches occur when a human is on a mountain with snow either skiing, snowboarding or snowmobiling. Main reason - strong winds or rock falls  Accumulation of snow and ice with weak layers, triggered by vibrations, heavy snowfall, or melting. Earthquake Sudden and violent movement of a portion of the Earth’s crust and the series of vibrations that follow. AKA temblors and tremors Sudden release of energy in the earth’s crust causing movement. EARTHQUAKE CASE STUDY PREPAREDNESS: Japan earthquake preparation (MEDC) Every school child is familiar with earthquake drills, drills are taken forward every month the local fire department takes in groups of children into earthquake simulation machines to familiarise them Buildings are made earthquake proof with the aid of deep foundation and massive shock absorbers that dampen seismic energy Another method allows the base of a building to move semi-independently to its superstructure, reducing the shaking caused by a quake All offices and houses have earthquake emergency kits, including dry rations, drinking water and basic medical supplies Schools also keep hard hats and gloves all television and radio stations switch immediately to official earthquake coverage which informs the public of risks, including tsunamis to enable people to retreat to higher ground or, on the coast, purpose-built tsunami defence bunkers. Cause of Natural Disasters on Solomon Islands Located on the Pacific Ring of Fire Seismically active, second after Japan Lie on a subduction zone - Australia and Pacific plate When 2 tectonic plates meet at a subduction zone, one bends and slides underneath, in the mantle Subduction zone earthquakes are the biggest in the world Their collision can cause forceful earthquakes and shifts in the ocean floor that generate tsunamis. December 9th, 2016, Earthquake on Solomon Islands Major 7.8 magnitude earthquake According to the US Geological Survey (USGS) , the epicentre of the Earthquake was located 68 km west of Kirakira, a provincial capital in the Solomon Islands, at a depth of 48km Electricity cuts and thatched houses collapsing  Collapsed buildings in Makira, the island closest to the epicentre The Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre initially said there could be possible tsunami waves, forcing villagers to flee to higher ground. Major response systems include warning systems and aftermath IMPACTS OF DISASTERS - ECONOMICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL Impact of Earthquake (Case study: Solomon Islands; Japan (1995 - Kobe Earthquake)) Environment For example, the famed New Madrid earthquake in the central United States in the 19th century changed the course of the Mississippi River and created a cutoff lake. In the most affected areas, trees, shrubs, land cover, and habitats can also be destroyed. What causes earthquakes? Convergent (destructive): movement of plates causes friction, and pressure is built as the plates try to move. Oceanic plate heavier, forced under the lighter continental plate When the pressure is released, sends out huge energy - earthquake Divergent (constructive): oceanic and continental plates move together friction b/w plates, pressure build up which is released in the form of an earthquake IMPACTS of earthquakes:  Structural damage to buildings - loss of property Loss of lives Fires Damage to bridges and highways. Can lead to tsunamis Case study: Earthquake in Japan 2011 https://www.internetgeography.net/japan-earthquake-2011/ Magniture of 9.0 on the Richter scale Impacts: Number of those confirmed dead + listed as missing from the 2011 disaster was about 18,500. The earthquake was the most expensive natural disaster in history, with an economic cost of US $235 billion. A tsunami occurred - waves up to 40 m in high devastated entire coastal areas and resulted in the loss of thousands of lives. Pollution up to 6 miles high due to the tsunami Seven reactors at the Fukushima nuclear power station experienced a meltdown. Levels of radiation were over eight times the normal levels. Rural areas remained isolated for a long time because the tsunami destroyed major roads and local trains and buses. Immediate responses after the earthquake: EARLY WARNING SYSTEM - The Japan Meteorological Agency issued tsunami warnings three minutes after the earthquake. The government declared a 20 km evacuation zone around the Fukushima nuclear power plant. Around 100,000 members of the Japan Self-Defence Force were dispatched for search and rescue operations within hours of the tsunami hitting the coast. Why do people still live in earthquake prone areas? No choice - can’t afford to move Tourism - due to hills and mountains created at plate boundaries fertile soil - rich in minerals (volcanic alluvial soil) Case study: Japan is prone to earthquakes Wealthy country - job opportunities How can the impacts of earthquakes be reduced? - measures taken Earthquake resistant buildings: massive rubber shock absorbers (Japan), deep foundations (USA); concrete is reinforced with steel, and they are designed to twist and sway Emergency Plans: bottled water, tinned food, medicines  Case studies: Earthquake drills: Japan - Sept 1st every year; earthquake management people take children and drill them in earthquake simulations to gain an experience on how an earthquake feels Predicting: seismometers In rural areas: low cost methods (wire mesh retrofitting); lightweight roofs and safety glass Impact of Tsunami Environment: It uproots trees and plants and destroys animal habitats such as nesting sites for birds. Land animals are killed by drowning and sea animals are killed by pollution if dangerous chemicals are washed away into the sea, thus poisoning the marine life. Economic: Tsunami waves destroy boats, buildings, bridges, cars, trees, telephone lines, power lines - and just about anything else in their way. Reconstruction and clean up after a tsunami is a huge cost problem. Infrastructure must be replaced, unsafe buildings demolished and rubbish cleared. Loss of income in the local economy and future losses from the destruction of infrastructure will be a problem for some time to come. Social: Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease (chlorea, typhoid) to spread in the tsunami hit areas. Illnesses such as malaria arise when water is stagnant and contaminated. Under these conditions it is difficult for people to stay healthy and for diseases to be treated, so infections and illnesses can spread very quickly, causing more death. The violent force of the tsunami results in instant death, most commonly by drowning. Buildings collapsing, electrocution, and explosions from gas, damaged tanks and floating debris are another cause of death. The tsunami of December 2004 that struck South East Asia and East Africa killed over 31,000 people in Sri Lanka only, leaving 23,000 injured. INCREASE IN DEATH TOLL Key-terms relating to it - Earths crust: This is the solid thin layer that covers the outside of the earth. To put it in perspective, think of it as the skin on the outside of an apple. Plate: A plate is a section of the earth's crust. Plates slide along either beside, over or under each other, causing friction and pressure between the plates. Magnitude: The amount of energy released during an earthquake which is computed from the measurement of seismic waves. Fault: The gaping hole which can occur as a result of an earthquake. This hole can be the size of a small crack to the size of an Olympic swimming pool or larger. Fault zones: Where giant rock slabs that are made up of the earth's crust collide and slide against each other regularly, causing the land to be unstable. Seismic waves: These waves are the vibrations and movement that travel from the earthquake fault at very high speeds. The vibrations of these waves are what cause the most destruction during the earthquakes. Gigantic release of energy creates One of the most terrifying and destructive acts of nature on the planet. Sudden, violent shakes of the earth are caused by the breaking and moving of the rock in the earth's crust as it releases strained energy that has built up over a long period of time. Earthquakes occur when the energy has built up so long that it snaps and causes smashing and crashing under the earth's surface and between the plates. Tornadoes Destructive columns of air that rotate and have contact between Earth’s surface and a cumulonimbus cloud (cloud forming a towering mass with a flat base at fairly low altitude) Worst tornadoes can exceed wind speeds of 300 miles/hour and move for more than 100 km before dissipating (disappearing) Flood Land covered by water that isn’t usually covered by water Water can cause permanent damage and cleanup after a flood includes getting rid of huge amounts of mud, debris and livestock carcasses (dead body). Landslide Can occur on shore or offshore  Usually at coastal lines but gravity forces the debris and rocks to fall and for a total landslide to occur. Drought Lengthy period of time, stretching months or years in time Land has a decrease in water supply Can have a massive impact on agriculture and the ecosystem Hail/hailstones Made of water ice and can be any size Can cause damage to cars, vehicles, aircrafts, buildings, crops and livestock animals. Can prove fatal Unit 3 - Environmental Regions Tropical Rainforest and Tropical Desert Similarities Differences Both are located in tropical latitudes, near Climate: Tropical rainforests receive heavy the equator. rainfall year-round, while tropical deserts are arid with minimal precipitation. Both biomes experience extreme environmental conditions (one in terms Biodiversity: Tropical rainforests have high of high rainfall, the other in terms of heat biodiversity with dense vegetation, and dryness). whereas tropical deserts have sparse vegetation and less biodiversity. Both have nutrient-poor soil making it difficult for vegetation to grow. Water resources: Rainforests have an abundant amount of water resources Example of Tropical Rainforest: Amazon while deserts face extreme water scarcity. Rainforest Example of Tropical Desert: Sahara Desert Tundra and Taiga (Coniferous Forest Biome) Similarities Differences Both are cold biomes and are located in Tundra experiences extremely cold higher latitudes. temperatures whereas the coniferous forest biome has cold winters that are  Both have short growing seasons. less extreme than the Tundra. Adapted plants and animals are suited for Mainly lichen and mosses grow in Tundra cold temperatures. regions due to permafrost while the Coniferous forest biome consists of Example of Tundra: Arctic tundra in coniferous trees trees, pines and firs. Alaska, Canada, Siberia. Animal Life: Tundra animals are adapted Example of Coniferous Forest: The Boreal to extreme cold with features like thick Forest in Canada fur, while animals in coniferous forests are more varied with species that hibernate or migrate in winter. Tropical Rainforest and Temperate Rainforest Similarities Differences Both have dense vegetation and a high Location: Tropical rainforests are found level of biodiversity. near the equator, while temperate rainforests are located in coastal regions Both biomes are characterized by in temperate zones (e.g., Pacific significant rainfall. Northwest of the U.S.). Example of tropical rainforest: The Congo Climate: Tropical rainforests are warm Rainforest year-round, while temperate rainforests have cooler temperatures with seasonal Example of temperate rainforest: Pacific changes. Northwest Forest Biodiversity: Tropical rainforests typically have greater biodiversity compared to temperate rainforests. Destruction of biomes and how that is impacting the local environment (min of 2 reasons, why this destruction is happening and the impact) Tropical rainforest: Large scale deforestation for agriculture and logging for timber. Impact: Deforestation leads to biodiversity loss and the extinction of plants and animals, disrupting animals and ecosystems. Many species are endemic and only found in rainforests. Rainforests act as carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon. Deforestation releases the carbon which leads to global warming. Tropical desert: Overgrazing, agriculture, some plants are removed by collectors, recreational activities Overgrazing and unsustainable agriculture leads to desertification of land, making it unsuitable for vegetation. Tourists that visit deserts for recreational purposes tend to collect certain plants which leads to engandering of the population of these plants. Recreational activities such as people visiting deserts in parts of Dubai could also lead to destruction of habitat since these areas would be polluted by the emissions of auto mobiles. Tundra: oil drilling, the tundra is slow to recover to damage, climate change The ice caps in tundra are melting leading to the destruction of the natural habitats which endangers the lives of polar bears, penguins and forces these animals to migrate. Oil drilling in the tundra led to oil spills which rapidly spread in soil and water ecosystems posing a threat to vegetation, wildlife and local fisheries. Specific example: Exxon Valdex oil spill in 1989 off the coast of Alaska’s Prince William Sound affected tundra environments and had a lasting impact on fragile ecosystems. Taiga (Coniferous): Logging and land clearing for agriculture or urbanization Reduced carbon storage and loss of species that depend on forest ecosystems. Soil erosion and altered water cycles due to deforestation. Temperate rainforest: Logging and land conversion for urban development. Habitat fragmentation leading to species decline. Disruption of local water cycles and increased risk of landslides due to deforestation. Reasons for loss of biodiversity: Resource extraction Taiga = Mining operations can irrereparably damage the fragile ecosystem. Rainforest = humans strip the rainforests for uses including logging and cattle ranching ○ Can help by promoting the sustainable use of the rainforest’s products ○ Encouraging the use of other sustainable methods such as rubber trees. Strategies on how human needs like extraction of resources can be met with a lesser biodiversity loss: Unit 6 - Rivers and Coastal Management Parts of river Upper course - Youthful stage - Steep, fast flowing river with less water, lots of erosion - Deep and narrow channel - River valley is v shaped - Vertical erosion causes the v shape - Both erosion and transportation - Hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition - Traction, saltation at high flow Middle Course - Channel is wider and deeper - More water - Slows down - River broadens - Floodplain starts to form - Erosion and transportation - Suspension, transportation, load is smaller and less angular Lower Course - Widest and deepest - Very slow, low velocity - More water - Deposition - Lateral erosion River Processes By river water Erosion It involves the wearing away of rock and soil found along the river bed and banks. It is also the breaking down of rock particles being carried downstream by the river. It takes place in 4 methods; Abrasion, Hydraulic Action, Attrition, Corrosion ➔ Abrasion: The erosion of the river bottom and the riverbank by material being carried by the river itself. When pebbles grind along the river bank and bed in a sand-papering effect. ➔ Hydraulic Action: The sheer force of the water pounding into the bed and banks can dislodge material. The water forces air to be trapped and pressured into cracks of rocks on the banks. The constant force of the river can cause the rocks to crack and break apart.  ➔ Attrition: Particles being carried downstream knock against each other, wearing each other down. This results in smaller, rounder particles as we move downstream ➔ Corrosion: Chemical erosion of rocks due to slightly acidic water. Rocks such as limestone and chalk can be eroded by acidic streams (as CaCO3 is basic) Transportation Transportation occurs when eroded material is carried from one place to another through the river system. Rivers pick up and carry material as they flow downstream ➔ Solution: some minerals (particularly in limestone areas) dissolve easily in water and are not visible to the naked eye ➔ Suspension: As a speed or velocity of a river increases, it is also to pick up and carry larger and larger particles in its flow. When particles are carried along the flow are not in contact with the river bed, they are said to be travelling in suspension. (sand and material floats) ➔ Saltation: Heavier particles may not be held in the flow all the time, but may be moved when the river has a large volume of water - leapfrog movement ➔ Traction: The heaviest particles are rolled along the bed. Such particles may only be moved when the river has a large volume of water. Deposition when the river load becomes too heavy for the river to carry, it is deposited at the bottom most level Causes of floods A flood occurs when a river bursts its banks and the water spills onto the floodplain It is usually by heavy rain as the faster the rainwater reaches the river channel, the more likely it is for the river to flood ○ Lack of vegetation or woodland If there is little vegetation near the drainage basins, then the surface runoff would be low (prevent soil erosion, reducing sediment going in the rivers, increasing water absorption) Drainage basin in urban areas ○ In drainage basins in urban areas, consists of concrete material that is largely impermeable Physical causes: ○ Precipitation: when there is intense/extended rain, the ground can become overly saturated which can prevent water from being absorbed leading to quicker runoff and a higher chance of flooding. ○ Geology: if there are non-porous rocks in an area that don’t allow water to flow through it leads to water flowing rapidly across the surface, increasing the chances of a flood.  ○ Steep slopes: water can move swiftly downhill in regions with steep terrains like mountains. ○ Storm surges Human causes: ○ Farming: agricultural practices can influence how water moves → field without crops during winters with wet soils can quickly channel water and ploughing down slopes can form small channels that accelerate water flow directly to rivers. ○ Urbanisation: city development affects water movement too → surfaces like concrete and asphalt that are hard and non-absorbent can speed up water flow to rivers. Also, scarcity of greenery → less rainwater is absorbed or evaporated. ○ Deforestation: cutting down forests can reduce the interception (precepitiation that reaches trees before it goes into the soil) and increase surface runoff Impacts of flooding - Con: Causes damage to homes and possessions and disruption in communities - Pro: However, it deposits alluvium into the floodplain, making it fertile and and excellent for agriculture Case study: Flooding in Gujarat, India (2017) led to loss of 200 lives because of heavy rainfall people rescued from indian army and air force Helicopters and boats used 130,000 people relocated Damaged electricity networks and lethal lightning storms 150 factories shut down and 50,000 cotton farms waterlogged 4000 animals killed River Management (Hard and Soft Engineering) Hard-engineering options ○ Dam Construction (positives) Built across the river to control the water discharge They control flooding by controlling the water released Reservoirs behind them are used for hydroelectric power generation or recreation  Negatives: Sediments are often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to erosion downstream Settlements or agriculture may be lost when the river valley is flooded to form a reservoir Several people can also be displaced in the making of a dam Ecosystems can be impacted, the fishing regions might not be able to get the fish available, because of the dam construction - aboriginal people ○ River engineering The channel course can be altered to divert flood waters away from the settlements River channel altered to be more wide and deep → allows them to carry more water Altered to be more straight → allows them to carry water quicker Altering however can cause the river channel to greater risk of flooding downstream, as water there is carried faster Case study: Hard engineering in Mississippi cause: heavy raining April 1993 saturated the upper mississippi basin, thunderstorms in June caused flash floods, mid july 180mm of rain in one day effects: 43 deaths, 50,000 people evacuated, 26,000km of land flooded, $12 billion in damages responses: 6 huge dams and 105 reservoirs built, afforestation to delay runoff. strengthening levees with concrete mattresses, making course shorter and straighter, less construction on floodplain They used stone dykes to trap sediment and encourage vertical eroding Channelisation - concrete mattressing The US Army Corps of Engineers carried out the river engineering Cons: However, as more concrete is involved, increased surface runoff and reduced infiltration Soft engineering options: work with the natural processes along the river to reduce the risk of flooding. ○ Afforestation Planting of trees Causes greater interception of rain water and lower river discharge Relatively low cost option ○ Managed flooding Allows river flooding naturally in areas to avoid flooding in important areas like near settlements ○ Planning Local authorities and national government introduce policies to control urban development near the floodplain, reducing the number of settlements that might get affected  It is hard to enforce policies in LEDCs ○ Creating awareness Soft Engineering in River Rhine (europe) High flooding in 1993 and 1995, combined with the awareness of global climate change has made public authorities realise the danger of floods Relocation of habitats Room for River scheme: ground coverage of vegetation with woodlands Use of fertiliser soil is being carefully monitored because it affects soil structure and its ability to retain water These soft engineering techniques have increased the time taken for water to enter the channel and created a larger cross section for allowing a larger volume of water River Pollution Causes of Pollution in India Oil and Gas Exploration: Oil exploration on various river basins Chemicals and Effluents: Industrialisation along river belts Garbage: Dumping of plastics and non-biodegradable waste, despite warnings and fines Washing and Sewage: Modern detergents made of chemicals contaminate the rivers. Defecating in rural areas Cremation: throwing dead bodies into the river Case Study: Pollution in Ganga :- Source: Gangotri Glacier - Pollution from leather industries in Kanpur - Highly populous areas, more waste - People dispose burnt and partially burnt bodies, and animal waste - 1 billion litres of untreated sewage waste - Goes through India and Bangladesh - Mass bathing for ritualistic practices - Yamuna main tributary - Cleaning acts like Ganga Action Plan (GAP) have been implemented to clean the river - To improve the water quality by Interception, Diversion and treatment of domestic sewage and (ii) Present toxic and industrial chemical wastes from identified grossly polluting units entering in to the river. Drainage basin: area where precipitation collects and then drains into a river or sea. Percolation: process by which water moves downward through the soil under gravitational forces. Hydrological cycle: water cycle; it is the system that rivers are a part of Input into the system = precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, snow) from clouds that developed from condensation and evaporation of water droplets Precipitation can: ○ Be intercepted by plants - precipitation is captured and held by vegetation like trees, leaves and plants temporarily. Then, the water can flow through the plants called stem flow into the ground/soil near the base of plant/tree. ○ OR ○ Falls and infiltrates into the ground = can be stored in the ground, aquifers (rock/sediment that contains groundwater), ○ OR ○ Go straight into the water - the water from precipitation can go through rivers, oceans or lakes. Cofluence: Watershed: Water cycle diagram: Source: the point where the river begins Mouth: where the river joins the sea Temperature Rainfall patterns Location/Region patterns and and changes on Earth with changes through throughout a Reasoning of out an year year existing climate patterns International Migrations Case studies: MEXICANS INTO THE USA Push factors ○ Life expectancy of 72 years in Mexico ○ Adult literacy rates are only 55% ○ 40% unemployed ○ Shortage of food ○ Poor standard of living Pull factors ○ Life expectancy of 76 years ○ Adult literacy rates are 99% ○ Many jobs are available ○ Family links ○ Better housing Effects on host country: cultural and racial issues, drainage of US economy Effects on home country: shortage of economically active, men emigrate leaving women, immigrants send $6 billion a year back to Mexico Transmigration in Indonesia From Java - Maluku (Overpopulated - underpopulated) Reasons: Government incentives to ease population pressure in Java Possibility of spreading development to more remote islands Consequences for Place of destination: 3 million people moved, putting pressure Thousand acres of rainforests cleared, leading to soil erosion Large amount of land unsuitable for farming Remoteness of island makes it difficult for commercial farming Tension between transmigrants and indigenous people Transmigrants receive 2 hectares of land for agriculture as an incentive to move Indigenous people see this as government favouritism Consequences for origin: Population in Java is growing, and transmigration is giving minimal relief Many transmigrants return to Java, without having much success in Maluku OVERPOPULATION: NIGERIA (UNIT 1 & 2) From 1986 to 2010, the percentage of population living in urban centers increased from 20% to more than 40% Persistent problem of inadequate water supply leading to unhealthy living conditions Increased levels of pollution, air, water, noise, soil contamination High infant and child mortality rates No development of health systems Elevated crime rates Malnutrition was a constant issue in rural areas Sustainable mining: Coal Mining Positive impacts of mining Coal mining contributes greatly towards the economic development of the nation but has huge impacts on human health and the environment. Mining often brings increases in other infrastructure services such as electricity. Improved infrastructure due to mining activity can also support broader economic development within the region. Coal mining provides employment for local communities. These jobs support the wider community when the employees’ income is spent on goods and services. Negative impacts of Coal Mining: ➔ Mining activity puts tremendous pressure on flora and fauna ➔ affects the local and global environment - destroys vegetation, causes extensive soil erosion and alters microbial communities ➔ The effect of mining on ground water level (lowering of ground water level), silting of surrounding water bodies and land are also of great concern. The burning of coal releases Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide and particles of dust and ash. ➔ air and water pollution have been recorded in coal burning areas Case Study for negative impacts: Jharia, Jharkhand Coal fields Galleries of coal, some coal is always left beneath with a lot of oxygen, that undergoes combustion reactions that light the entire place on fire 40 million tonnes of coal have gone up in fires  Several homes abandoned Victims in hospitals suffering by inhalation of toxic fuels Many inhabitants sneak up on the coal and practice illegal mining Sustainable mining: ➔ Sustainable mining aims to minimize environmental impact while maximizing benefits for both humans and ecosystems. ➔ It involves reducing resource depletion, managing waste, and restoring ecosystems affected by mining activities. ➔ The process emphasizes responsible water usage, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and protecting biodiversity. ➔ Social sustainability includes supporting local communities, improving livelihoods, and promoting safe working conditions. ➔ Continuous innovation and technological improvements are essential for achieving these goals. ➔ Sustainable mining prioritizes the well-being of local communities by creating job opportunities and supporting community development. ➔ It focuses on enhancing living conditions and infrastructure in mining areas, fostering long-term social benefits. ➔ Promoting fair and safe labor practices ensures that workers are protected from hazards, with an emphasis on health, safety, and well-being. ➔ Collaboration with stakeholders, including governments and NGOs, strengthens the positive impact on communities and ensures responsible resource management. Case study 1 for sustainable oil mining/fracking: Mittelplate reservoir, located in Germany - it is an artificial island was constructed in 1987 All water bodies near the island are protected by leak proof steel and concrete basin to avoid contamination and negative impacts to biodiversity Oil rigs are made of sustainable technology There has not been even one incident since 28 years of oil spills, as a major proportion of the capital (1.5 billion euros) has been spent on implementing safety measures of an extremely high standard Nothing escapes the facility unchecked, even rain water is treated and then sent Waste disposal system guarantees that the North Sea and Wadden Sea tidelands are not exposed to contamination Waste disposal system : waste water from the residential quarters and kitchen waste is purified from the facilities water treatment plants Case study 2 for sustainable oil mining: Pan African Resources - South Africa’s lowest cost and therefore profitable gold miners continuously reusing process water in a closed loop circuit, working towards zero liquid discharge  Lower CO2 emissions by transitioning to renewable energy Harnessing energy such as wind and solar is the first step for sustainable development, as there is no depletion of mineral resources or direct air and water pollution after constructing the plant IMPACTS ON LIFE AND WELLBEING OF PRESENT AND FUTURE GENERATIONS Impacts include : effect on behavioural development, respiratory illness, and other chronic diseases Pollution and climate change cause children to become less resilient and communities they live in become less equitable The developing fetus and the young children are largely affected by this, because of their developing immune systems Especially those living in low and middle income countries Japan earthquake preparation (MEDC) Every school child is familiar with earthquake drills, drills are taken forward every month the local fire department takes in groups of children into earthquake simulation machines to familiarise them Buildings are made earthquake proof with the aid of deep foundation and massive shock absorbers that dampen seismic energy Another method allows the base of a building to move semi-independently to its superstructure, reducing the shaking caused by a quake All offices and houses have earthquake emergency kits, including dry rations, drinking water and basic medical supplies Schools also keep hard hats and gloves all television and radio stations switch immediately to official earthquake coverage which informs the public of risks, including tsunamis to enable people to retreat to higher ground or, on the coast, purpose-built tsunami defence bunkers. Waves (study this for FA3) Waves: Swash: water that comes up on the beach Backwash: water that leaves the beach Destructive waves: waves that destroy or erode the land Backwash is STRONGER than SWASH. Hence, sediment is taken away and transported. Destructive waves are higher and closer together than constructive waves due to high winds. Constructive waves: Swash is STRONGER than backwash Hence, sediment is deposited on to the beach Waves are lower and further apart due to lighter winds Longshore waves: Waves that approach the shore at an angle due to prevailing winds. This zigzag movement transports sediment along the coastline, known as longshore drift. Coastal erosional processes: Same as those of rivers ○ Abrasion (Corrasion): The erosion of the river bottom and the riverbank by material being carried by the river itself. When pebbles grind along the river bank and bed in a sand-papering effect. ○ Hydraulic Action: The sheer force of the water pounding into the bed and banks can dislodge material. The water forces air to be trapped and pressured into cracks of rocks on the banks. The constant force of the river can cause the rocks to crack and break apart. ○ Attrition: Particles being carried downstream knock against each other, wearing each other down. This results in smaller, rounder particles as we move downstream ○ Corrosion: Chemical erosion of rocks due to slightly acidic water. Rocks such as limestone and chalk can be eroded by acidic streams (as CaCO3 is basic) Weathering: breaking down of rock which occurs because of water getting into the rock, freezing at night and expanding. Mass movement: the downhill movement of sediment that moves because of gravity. Coastal transportation processes: Longshore drift: process of erosion, deposition and transportation ○ Zig-zag pattern of sand particle movement ○ Movement of material along the shore by wave action. ○ Prevailing wind blows the waves at an angle to the beach, swash and backwash occur which leads to the movement of material. ○ Contributes to the formation of depositional landforms like spits. ○ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-Z8FwDLQL8 Low tide: when the water retreats to its lowest level, moving away from the shore. High tide: when the water covers more of the shore area and rises to its highest level. Tidal range: difference in height between high tide and low tide Coastal erosional landforms: Cliffs: formed when weathering weakens the top of the land and destructive waves attack the bottom of the rock face (defined as a steep rock face.) ○ Steep, vertical, or near-vertical rock faces formed when waves continuously erode the base of a coastline ○ Erosional processes involved: hydraulic action, abrasion, corrosion ○ (e.g: The Cliffs of Moher, Ireland → several tourists (musicians, artists and poets for generations are attracted to this erosional landform and are drawn to its breathtaking beauty.) Advantages: ○ Serve as dramatic landscapes that attract tourism, supporting local economies. ○ Provide habitats for unique flora and fauna, especially seabirds like puffins. Challenges: ○ Highly susceptible to further erosion, leading to cliff retreat and loss of land. ○ Hazardous for human activities, including coastal development and recreation. Hollow caves: can be carved out by the water, from within mixed rock types where softer rock erodes faster than harder rock. Arch: hollow caves can break through forming an arch ○ Arches form when waves erode through a headland, creating a hole that eventually develops into an arch. The process begins with the formation of cracks, which are widened into caves and ultimately join to form an arch. ○ Processes involved: hydraulic action, weathering ○ Durdle Door, England Advantages: ○ Serves as a study site for coastal geomorphology where people can study landforms and erosional processes ○ Several photographers and tourists would visit this site, boosting local economies and helping tourists understand cultures of different regions. Disadvantages:  Further erosion can lead to the disruption of recreational activities and threat to human lives. Arches are temporary features that will eventually collapse, leaving stacks and stumps. Increased tourism might lead to environmental degradation and problems associated with river pollution Headland: continual erosion keeps widening the arch until it can no longer support the land on top, and collapses leaving a headland on one side. (this landform is made up of hard and soft rock → the soft rock is eroded when waves hit the coastline since it is less resistant leading to the hard rock remaining intact and jutting out of the sea.) Stack: after the arch collapses, the other side is known as stack (defined as a steep, vertical column of rocks.) Stump: occurs when a stack is eroded. Wave-cut platform: formed when waves erode the base of a cliff (hydraulic action and abrasion), causing it to retreat (defined as a flat part of land that extends from a cliff out in the sea.) Bays: consist of alternating bands of hard and soft rock → formed when the coastline is eroded into the ocean → over time, the bands of softer rock will be worn back forming bays. e.g: Swanage Bay in the U.K. which was formed when clay eroded away faster than limestock and chalk. Order of erosion: 1. Cliff → Cave → Arch → Stack → Stump 2. Cliff → Headland 3. Cliff → Wave-cut platform Coastal deposition landforms: Builds characteristic landforms Happens when constructive waves dump sand pebbles and rocks which builds beaches Spit: narrow extended stretch of beach that projects out to the sea, it is formed when sediment is deposited due to a change of direction of the coastline. In addition, the area is sheltered from the wind so there is less energy for the sediment to be transported by the wave. Formation:  ○ A spit is a narrow ridge of sand that extends from the mainland into the sea, often with a curved end due to wave refraction. Key processes: longshore drift, deposition ○ Example: Spurn Point, England: Located on the Humber Estuary, this spit stretches several kilometers into the North Sea and is an excellent example of a dynamic depositional landform. Advantages: Create sheltered areas behind the spit, fostering habitats for diverse ecosystems, such as salt marshes. Act as natural barriers, reducing wave energy and protecting the coastline from erosion. Challenges: Spits are vulnerable to storm surges and rising sea levels, leading to breaches or erosion. Human activities, such as dredging and construction, can disrupt sediment supply, leading to the degradation of the spit. Beach: formed by constructive waves which have a stronger swash than backwash, these waves deposit materials on the beach building it up over time. ○ E.G. Juhu Beach in Mumbai Advantages: Major tourist attraction spot Provides recreational opportunities Disadvantages: Prone to erosion from strong waves Litter from tourists, leading to beach pollution and loss of aquatic ecosystems Human activities such as construction and sand mining can disrupt natural sediment leading to beach degradation. Hook end: when wind and waves affect the end of a spit causing it to curve and create a hook end (a sheltered area protected from incoming waves.) ○ Silt is deposited and mudflats or salt marshes can form. Bar: forms when a spit extends, joining the land on the other side. A bar detaches a bay from the main ocean which then forms a lagoon. Tombolo: a landform where a spit/sandmar connects to the mainland with another island. Spit and bar example: Tombolo example: Real world examples of landforms: Swanage Bay, Chesil Beach, Old Harry’s rock that are all in the UK.  Coastal Management Techniques Hard Engineering Case Study: Mumbai, India Problem: The city’s iconic Marine Drive faced coastal erosion due to high tides and storm surges during the monsoon season. Solution: Large tetrapods (weighing 2 tons each) were installed along the coastline to prevent wave impact and reduce erosion. Results: The tetrapods successfully protected the promenade and surrounding areas from flooding and erosion. However, natural sand deposition on nearby beaches decreased due to sediment trapping. Hard Engineering Case Study: Busan, South Korea Problem: The Haeundae Beach area in Busan faced severe coastal erosion due to frequent typhoons and rising sea levels. Coastal infrastructure and the tourism economy were at risk. Solution: Construction of concrete tetrapods along the shoreline to dissipate wave energy. Seawalls were also built to protect nearby buildings and roads. Results: The erosion was significantly reduced, and the beach was preserved for tourism. However, natural aesthetics of the beach were compromised, and maintenance costs remain high. Soft Engineering Case Study: Kuakata Beach, Bangladesh Problem: Kuakata Beach, a major tourist destination, was eroding due to rising sea levels and frequent cyclones. Nearby villages were also losing land to the sea. Solution: Beach nourishment was undertaken by replenishing sand eroded by waves. The government promoted planting of salt-tolerant vegetation like casuarina trees to stabilize the beach. Results: The project improved beach stability and reduced flooding. Vegetation increased resilience to storm surges and supported local biodiversity. Demographics and Human Movements: Push factor: a factor that forces people to move out of a certain area - economic, cultural, environmental. e.g. few opportunities, discrimination, loss of wealth, war, natural disasters, poverty, lack of healthcare and education facilities and high population pressure on the land. Pull factor: a motivating factor that attracts people to a certain area - economic, cultural, environmental → reasons for moving to a certain place. e.g. job opportunities, better living conditions, attractive climate, security, better healthcare, multiple sources of entertainment Intervening obstacles: things that prevent a migration to a certain area mainly to do with features of the land. e.g. cultural taboos on travel or transferring hostile territory or physical features such as mountains and deserts making migration difficult. Reasons for migration: Employment Education Marriage Emigration: act of leaving one’s country of origin and moving to a foreign country. Benefits of emigration IN COUNTRY OF ORIGIN (DONOR REGION): Reduces the population density of the country of origin which reduces the pressure on resources in the are including basic necessities like food, housing, education and healthcare. It reduces birth rates which helps to control population Reduces under-employment in the donor region Migrants send back remittances to their families which can be used to buy property, jewelry, vehicles → it improves the standard of living Migrants act as agents of social change → new ideas (new technology, family planning, girls’ education, sanitation, cleanliness) get diffused from urban to rural areas through migrants. Leads to the intermingling of people from diverse cultures → ppl gain broad perspectives which breaks old obsolete ideas. Negatives of migration: Sex ratio (number of females per 1000 males) is increased, since men are migrating Emigration leads to loss of labor → slows economic development Reduces the population of young people of working age → adds physical and mental pressure on the existing population. Remittances sent back can be used for alcohol, drugs, gambling People might give up their traditional ways of living since migrants may introduce new technologies leading to more electricity, fertilizer and a detrimental impact on the environment  Giving up one’s culture and beliefs → assimilation Immigration: international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they don’t possess citizenship to settle as PERMANENT RESIDENTS. Benefits of immigration: Creates a multi-ethnic society Reduces underpopulation where BR and DR are low Migrants take up less desirable jobs at cheaper rates Negative impacts of migration: May lead to over dependency of some industry’s migrant labor → also much of the money earned by migrants is sent back to the donor regions Segregated areas form → discrimination against ethnic groups or minorities might lead to civil war Increased number of people add to the pressure on local resources Jobs for people become less in receiver regions (the country where people migrated to) Forced migration is the involuntary movement of people who fear harm or death. Forced migration has also been used for economic gain, such as the 20 million men, women and children who were forcibly carried as slaves to the Americas between the 16th and 18th centuries. Social reasons Social reasons tend to involve forced migration Pull factors Principles of religious tolerance For example the US attracted religious refugees, such as the Mennonites, who settled in Pennsylvania. Push factors Intolerance towards a certain cultural group Active religious persecution Examples being the Huguenots in 16th century France, the Puritans in 17th century England and the Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. Physical reasons Pull factors Attractive environments, such as mountains, seasides and warm climates For example the Alps pull French people to eastern France. Spain attracts migrants, especially retirees, who seek warmer winters Push factors Natural disasters Examples would be the east African drought of 2011 and the mass exodus from the island of Montserrat leading up to the eruption of the *La Soufriere Hills volcano in 1995, which led to two thirds of the population abandoning the island. *(Don’t confuse with La Soufriere on the island of Saint Vincent, or La Grande Soufriere on the island of Basse-Terre.) Types of migration Iit has been determined that internal migrants within India can be clustered into four specific streams, which include: Rural to Rural (R-R) Rural to Urban (R-U) Urban to Urban (U-U) Urban to Rural (U-R) Consequences of Migration Economic consequences: ○ Remittances are sent by international migrants which benefits the regions from which they have migrated. However, unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India can cause overcrowding and an unhealthy rise in population density. Demographic consequences: ○ Unbalanced sex ratio since the males from rural areas within the working age group move to cities ○ Loss of human resources slows the development of rural areas  Social consequences: ○ Loneliness and anonymity due to living far from family can force people to engage in antisocial activities like crimes and drug abuse. Environmental consequences: ○ Overcrowding of urban areas puts a lot of pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure → overuse of natural resources in these areas leads to the depletion and raises pollution levels.