General Biology Reviewer_ Compiled Modules.pdf

compound microscopes and Grade 11 Reviewer telescopes around 1600. 1st Semester - The microscope has a magnificat...

compound microscopes and Grade 11 Reviewer telescopes around 1600. 1st Semester - The microscope has a magnification range of between General Biology 3x to 9x the size of an object. Sherwin Elijah D. Vizcaya | 11 - Curie Johan Marcus Lunor | 11 - Curie 2. Robert Hooke (1665) Angel Catungal | 11 - Einstein Module 1: Structures and Functions of Cells The Cell from Latin “cella” meaning “small room” - Observed a piece of cork basic structural, functional, specimen under the microscope and biological unit of all structures which appear as tiny compartments similar to small known organisms rooms fitted together in 1665. often called the “building - He coined the term “cell”. blocks of life” Study of Cells: Cell Biology, 3. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Cellular Biology, Cytology (1674) Evolution of Cell Theory Scientists that Formulated the Cell Theory: 1. Zacharias Janssen (1600) - Dutch scientist who created his own microscope and discovered bacteria from his dental scrapings which he called - Dutch spectacle maker who “animalcules” as they made one of the earliest looked like animals to him. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - He is also believed to be - He compared diverse the first to observe under kinds of plant specimens his microscope the under the microscope in structure of a red blood 1831. cell of different animals as - He observed that they are well as a sperm cell in all composed of cells and 1674. inside the cell is a dark dense spot which he 4. Isaac Newton (1686) termed as the nucleus. 6. Matthias Schleiden (1838) - Newton did not contribute directly to the cell theory, but - A German botanist who his work on the laws of motion concluded that all plants are and universal gravitation laid the made up of cells in 1838. foundation for the study of mechanics, which is an 7. Theodor Schwann (1839) important part of the study of cells and cellular processes. - When Newton published his work in physics, Hooke claimed that Newton was inspired by him and copied Hooke’s work, which developed their rivalry with each other. - A German zoologist and physiologist who stated that all 5. Robert Brown (1831) animal tissues are made up of cells in 1839. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  8. Robert Remak (1841) structure and can only replicate within host cells, challenging their classification as living organisms. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. Flaw: - The discovery of organelles like mitochondria and ribosomes demonstrates that even smaller, - Proposed that cells arise by cell specialized structures within division in 1841 cells carry out essential life functions. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. 9. Rudolf Virchow (1855) Flaw: - Contradicts Endosymbiotic Theory and Abiogenesis Theory Endosymbiotic Theory - Suggests that certain organelles (like mitochondria and chloroplasts) originated as independent prokaryotic cells - Believed that all cells come from that were engulfed by a host pre-existing cells in 1855 cell - Popularized Robert Remak’s idea - Adds complexity to the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells, as it suggests 3 Postulates of Cell Theory that some cells or cellular 1. All living organisms are components may have a composed of one or more cells. different origin. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. Flaws of Each Postulate: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. Flaw: - Viruses, though considered biological entities, lack cellular sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo Abiogenesis Theory times → volume - Suggests that life on Earth increases by 1000 originated from non-living times chemical compounds through surface area must be large natural processes, occurring enough to meet the metabolic over a long period of time. needs of its volume - The formation of self-replicating organic molecules (polymers – RNA) are thought to be the start Smaller Cell Larger Cell of life. Cell radius 1 unit 10 unit - This theory is different from (r) spontaneous generation. Surface 12.57 unit^2 1257 unit area (4πr²) Volume 4.189 unit^3 4189 unit^3 (4/3πr^3) Surface 3 0.3 Area/Volu me Common Features among all Types of Cells 1. Centrally located genetic material Why are Cells small? Surface area to volume ratio Cell gets larger → volume - contains DNA - the hereditary molecule increases at a faster rate - Prokaryotes: the simplest than surface area organisms - cell radius increases by + most of the genetic 10 times → surface material lies in a area increases by 100 sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  single circular carry out its everyday molecule of DNA activities + typically resides - Organelle: any discrete near the center of macromolecular the cell in an area structure in the cytoplasm called nucleoid specialized for a specific (not segregated, function however, from the - Cytosol: contains organic rest of the cell’s molecules and ions in interior by solution to distinguish it membranes) from the larger - Eukaryotes: complex organelles suspended in organisms this fluid + DNA is contained in the nucleus 3. Plasma Membrane (surrounded by a double-membrane structure called the nuclear envelope) - in both types: DNA contains the genes that code for the proteins synthesized by the cell - encloses a cell and separate its contents 2. Cytoplasm from the surroundings - a phospholipid bilayer (about 5-10 nm thick/5-10 billionths of a meter thick) with proteins embedded on it - semifluid matrix that fills the interior of the cell - contains all of the sugars, amino acids, and proteins the cell uses to sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  Sedimentation coefficient not additive determines how fast a particle/organelles pellet out during centrifugation Types of Cells Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells (Prokaryotes) (Eukaryotes) Does not have true Has nucleus and nucleus and membrane-bound membrane-bound organelles organelles -pro (before) + - -eu (true) + -karyon karyon (nucleus) (nucleus) consists of bacteria consists of plants, 4. Ribosomes and archaea animals, fungi, and protists - particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein Prokaryotic Cells - carry out protein synthesis Ribosomal Subunits of Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Eukaryotes 50S large subunit + 60S large subunit + 30S small subunit 40S small subunit 1. Nuclear Region/Nucleoid - contains the DNA - Plasmid - extrachromosomal source of DNA 2. Cell Wall - made of peptidoglycan, structural support S - Svedberg Unit sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  3. Plasma/Cell Membrane - made up of phospholipids and proteins, semi-permeable 4. Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis Prokaryotic Surface Extension 1. Glycocalyx - outer coating of many prokaryotes, consisting of a capsule or a slime Prokaryotic Cell Wall layer Composition can be classified 2. Flagella by Gram Staining - locomotion organelles of some prokaryote - long, slender cellular structure used for mobility - can be found in sperm cell Locomotion w/ Flagella 1. Monotrichous - one on one pole (polar) 2. Lophotrichous - many on one pole 3. Peritrichous - many all around 4. Amphitrichous - one for each pole Gram Positive (purple) - bacteria have thick peptidoglycan walls Gram Negative (pink) - bacteria have thin peptidoglycan walls sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  3. Fimbriae - has genetic material of the - attachment structures on cell; acts as a brain the surface of some Inside the Nucleus prokaryotes (not visible 1. Chromatin - on TEM) regular, - Pilus: for conjugal uncondensed form exchange and of chromosomes locomotion; protein 2. Nucleolus - located filament used to help cells within the nucleus during clinging/moving and is the site of across surfaces, or for ribosomal RNA plasmid transfer (rRNA) synthesis 2. Nuclear Envelope - encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm - has pores that regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the 4. Endospore nucleus 3. Nuclear Lamina - maintains the shape of the nucleus - composed of protein - dormant, tough, non-reproductive structure for protection against severe environmental stresses - bunkers inside the cells Eukaryotic Cells 1. Nucleus - contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most conspicuous The Endomembrane System organelle sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo - The endomembrane system is Synthesizes lipids Has bound composed of 6 components. ribosomes which secretes Nuclear Envelope glycoproteins Endoplasmic Reticulum (proteins covalently Golgi Apparatus bonded to carbohydrates) Lysosomes Vacuoles Metabolizes Distributes carbohydrates transport vesicles, Plasma Membrane proteins surrounded - These components are either by membranes. continuous or connected via Detoxifies poison A membrane transfer by vesicles. factory for the cell. Stores calcium - 1. Endoplasmic Reticulum - Accounts for more than half of the total membrane in the eukaryotic cells. - Its membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope. - It has two distinct regions 2. Golgi Apparatus - Smooth ER, lacks - Consists of flattened ribosomes and site membranous sacs called of lipid synthesis. cisternae. - Rough ER, has - Modifies product of the ribosomes studding ER. its surface. - Manufactures certain Smooth ER Rough ER macromolecules. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Sorts and packages polysaccharides, and materials into transport nucleic acids. vesicles. - Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole. - A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules. - Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy. 4. Vacuoles - A eukaryotic cell may have one or several vacuoles. - Food vacuoles: formed by phagocytosis. - Contractile vacuoles: found in many freshwater protists. They pump water out of the cell. - Central vacuoles: found in many mature plant cells. They hold organic compounds and water. 3. Lysosomes - A membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules. - Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  According to this theory, the ancestors of mitochondria were oxygen using non-photosynthetic prokaryotes that were taken into host cells. The ancestors of chloroplasts were photosynthetic prokaryotes. The large arrows represent change over evolutionary time. The small arrows inside the cells show the process of the endosymbiont becoming an organelle, also over long periods of time. Mitochondria and Chloroplast Are not part of the endomembrane system Endosymbiotic Theory Have a double membrane Have proteins made by free ribosomes Contain their own DNA 1. Mitochondria - Site of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that generates ATP. - Nearly in all eukaryotic cells. - Has a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - The inner membrane molecules that function in creates two photosynthesis. compartments: - Chloroplast structure intermembrane space includes: and mitochondrial + Thylakoids: matrix. membranous sacs, - Some metabolic steps of stacked to form a cellular respiration are granum. catalyzed in the + Stroma: The mitochondrial matrix. internal fluid. - Cristae presents a larger surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP. 2. Chloroplasts - Found in leaves, green organs of plants, and algae, the site for photosynthesis. - Member of a family of organelles called plastids. - Contains the green pigment called chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo Peroxisomes Three Main Types of Fibers that make up the Cytoskeleton specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane produces hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water Oxygen is used to break down different types of molecules 1. Microtubules - thickest of the three Cytoskeleton components of the cytoskeleton network of fibers extending - tubulin polymers (parang throughout the cytoplasm stick-o) organizes the cell’s structures - also function for and activities, anchoring intracellular support many organelles - Kinesin: a molecule (pink) helps to support the cell and walking a large vesicle maintain its shape (dark green) along a interacts with motor proteins microtubule (green-white to produce motility road) Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails” provided by the cytoskeleton Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may help regulate biochemical activities sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  Centrosome and Centrioles microtubules grow out from a Property Microtubules (Tubulin centrosome near the nucleus Polymers) Centrosome: Structure Hollow tubes; wall consists “microtubule-organizing center” of 13 columns of tubulin Animal Cells: the centrosome has molecules a pair of centrioles, each with Diameter 25 nm with 15-nm lumen nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring Protein Tubulin subunits Cilia and Flagella Main - Maintenance of cell functions shape - Cell motility - Chromosome movements in cell division - Organelle movements Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells they differ in beating patterns 2. Microfilaments sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - also called actin filaments, are the thinnest components - Globular protein arranged in a helix - Major contractile component of muscle cells - Plays a role in cell rapid polymerization and structure, organization, depolymerization of actin mitosis, and movement filaments Property Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers) Muscle Contraction Structure Two intertwined strands of actin Diameter 7 nm Protein Actin subunits Main - Maintenance of cell functions shape - Changes in cell shape - Muscle contraction Microfilaments that function in - Cytoplasmic cellular motility contain the streaming protein myosin in addition to - Cell motility actin - Cell division In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one another Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers Cytoplasmic Streaming Actin Treadmilling sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  Polymers) Structure Fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables Diameter 8-12 nm Protein One of several different subunits proteins of the keratin family Main - Maintenance of cell circular flow of cytoplasm within functions shape cells - Anchorage of nucleus and streaming speeds distribution certain other of materials within the cell organelles Plant Cells: actin-myosin - Formation of interactions drive cytoplasmic nuclear lamina streaming Amoeboid Movement Localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin also drives amoeboid movement Pseudopodia (cellular extensions): extend and contract through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments Actin flexibility allows the structural change in the pseudopods of Amoeba, allowing it to move. 3. Intermediate Filaments - fibers with diameters in a middle range - Cytoskeletal filament - Structural protein in eukaryotic cells Property Microtubules (Tubulin sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  cells): added Extracellular Components between the plasma membrane and the 1. Cell Wall primary cell wall 2. Extracellular Matrix - Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an - extracellular structure that elaborate extracellular distinguishes plant cells matrix (ECM) from animal cells - made up of glycoproteins - Prokaryotes, fungi, and such as collagen, some protists also have proteoglycans, and cell walls fibronectin - protects the plant cell, - ECM proteins bind to maintains its shape, and receptor proteins in the prevents excessive plasma membrane called uptake of water integrins - made of cellulose fibers - Functions of the ECM: embedded in other + Support polysaccharides and + Adhesion protein + Movement - May have multiple layers: + Regulation + Primary Cell Wall: relatively thin and Intercellular Junctions flexible Neighboring cells in tissues, + Middle Lamella: organs, or organ systems thin layer between often adhere, interact, and primary walls of communicate through direct adjacent cells physical contact; they + Secondary cell wall (in some facilitate this contact sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  preventing leakage of 1. Plasmodesmata extracellular fluid 3. Desmosomes - (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets 4. Gap Junctions - (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells - channels between adjacent plant cells - water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell Animal Cell Summary 2. Tight Junctions - membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  Grade 11 Reviewer 1st Semester General Biology Dana Bettina Llenos | 11-Einstein Willron Dexter Corpuz | 11-Galileo Unit 1: Plant Cells and Tissues Plant Evolution - ~ 1500 million years ago - Green Algae (not part of Kingdom Plantae but are part of Kingdom Protista) Plant Cell Summary - ~ 500 million years ago (Land Plants) - Mosses - ~ 420 million years ago (Vascular Plants) - Lycophytes - Ferns - ~ 350 million years ago (Seed Plants) - Gymnosperms - ~ 150 million years ago (Flowering Plants) - Dicots - Monocots “Practice makes better, not perfect” BASIC PLANT STRUCTURES - Three basic organs: roots, stems, - Mang Tomas and leaves. - Organized into root system and shoot system: - Roots rely on sugar from photosynthesis in the shoot system. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Shoots rely on water and minerals absorbed by the root system. Roots - Are multicellular organs with key functions: - Anchoring the Plant - Absorbing minerals and water - Storing organic nutrients - Taproot system: One main vertical root with large lateral roots. - Fibrous root system: Many thin lateral roots, no main root MODIFIED ROOTS (common in seedless vascular plants and monocots). - Root hairs: Increase surface area for water and mineral absorption. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  located near the shoot tip and causes Prop roots - elongation of a young shoot. support tall top heavy plants Ex: Pandan -> Pneumatophores - “air roots” enable root systems to capture oxygen Ex: Cassava -> Buttress roots - support tall MODIFIED STEMS trunks of some Rhizomes - tropical trees Horizontal “like buttresses.” underground Ex: Mangrove -> stems with nodes and internodes. Storage roots – storage of starch and water Tubers - Swollen, fleshy Ex: Balete underground stems that store starch, with “eyes” (nodes) for STEMS new shoots. - A stem is an organ consisting of: - An alternating system of Bulbs - nodes, the points at which Underground leaves are attached. storage organs with a short stem - Internodes, the stem and fleshy, segments between nodes. nutrient-rich - An axillary bud is a structure that leaves or scales. has the potential to form a lateral shoot, or branch. - An apical bud, or terminal bud, is sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo Corms - Short, MODIFIED STEMS - Continuation thickened Cladodes or underground Cladophylls - stems that store Flattened, nutrients; has leaf-like stems solid structure (no that carry out fleshy leaves). photosynthesis. They are an Stolons - adaptation to Horizontal stems arid environments growing above or where leaves may just below the soil be reduced to surface; spread minimize water from the parent loss. plant and produce new Thorns: Sharp, plants at nodes. pointed modified stems that protect the plant Difference between Corm & Bulb from herbivores. CORM BULB Unlike spines, which are Swollen stem Layers of modified leaves, modified leaves thorns arise from Stores food surrounding a the stem. reserves bud Produces new Stores nutrient for LEAVES corms from buds growth and or offsets development - Main photosynthetic organ of Produces new most vascular plants. bulbs from a - Consist of a flattened blade basal plate or and a petiole, joining the leaf offsets to a stem node. Vein Arrangement: - Monocots: Parallel veins. - Dicots: Branching veins. Classification: - Leaf morphology used by taxonomists for classifying angiosperms. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  SIMPLE LEAVES VS COMPOUND LEAVES SIMPLE LEAVES COMPOUND LEAVES In a simple leaf, In a compound the blade is leaf, the leaf completely blade is undivided. The completely leaf shape may divided, also be formed of consisting of one lobes, where the petiole with gap between the several leaflets. lobes does not reach the main vein. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  MODIFIED LEAVES Reproductive Tendrils - slender, leaves - leaves coiled structures that can produce that help a plant new plants climb by wrapping through buds or around a support. plantlets. Spines - sharp, Bracts: Modified pointed structures or specialized that protect the leaves often plant from associated with herbivores. reproductive structures like Succulent leaves - flowers or thick, fleshy inflorescences. leaves adapted to They can be store water brightly colored to attract pollinators. Insectivorous leaves - trap and digest insects and TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES other small - Permanent Tissues animals. These - Simple Permanent Tissues plants usually - Parenchyma grow in - Collenchyma nutrient-poor soils and obtain - Sclerenchyma nutrients from their prey - Complex Permanent Tissues Scale leaves – - Dermal Tissues small, thin, and - Ground Tissues typically dry leaves that - Vascular Tissues protect buds or (Xylem and Phloem) reduce water loss. - Meristematic Tissues - Apical Meristem Storage leaves - - Intercalary Meristem store nutrients, particularly in - Lateral Meristem bulbs and other underground PERMANENT TISSUES structures sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Tissues that contain nondividing - Collenchyma cells due to it reaching its mature - They are specialized form parenchyma tissue, which - The cells are derived from the are found in all green meristematic tissue parts - Simple Permanent Tissues - They are elongated with - Tissues with the unevenly thickened walls same type of cells, - They are alive during cell function, and origin maturity - Complex Permanent - They control the functions Tissues of young plants - Tissues composed - Provides support to plants of two or more by not restraining growth types of cells but due to the absence of contribute to a secondary walls and common functions hardening agent in their SIMPLE PERMANENT primary walls - Sclerenchyma TISSUES - Rigid, nonliving cells - Parenchyma - They have thick, lignified - General cells of plants secondary walls - Spherical in shape and - They provide strength very thin-walled - Gives support to plants - They are present in ALL with the help of hardening plants cells plants in their cells - They have very large vacuoles - Frequently found in TYPES OF PARENCHYMA all roots, stem, - Aerenchyma - In hydrophytes, the leaves, and in fruits intercellular space - Its function is to between cells became synthesize and storage of wide and filled with air synthesized food products - They have large air spaces - It also controls plant’s - Help in gaseous exchange metabolism and provide buoyancy to (photosynthesis, plants respiration, and protein - Chlorenchyma synthesis) - Parenchyma richly - Plays a vital role in wound supplied with chloroplasts healing and regeneration in plants sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Found in leaf mesophyll, (transport of water, Phloem Tissue sepals, cladodes, etc. minerals, and food) - Photosynthetic in function and possess chlorophyll TYPES OF SCLERENCHYMA - Fibers - Long, slender cells arranged in threads and tapering at the end - Generally unbranched - Sclereid - Short, irregular in shape and are almost same diameter with blunt end - Have thick, lignified DERMAL TISSUES secondary walls - Tissues that cover the external part of herbaceous plants GROUND TISSUES - Composed of epidermal cells, - Tissues that synthesize the which secrete the waxy cuticle organic compounds and support - Waxy cuticles responsible the plants by storing the for protecting plants produced products against water loss - Composed of Parenchyma, - Consists of the epidermis and Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma cells periderm Tissue System and PARTS OF THE DERMAL Components Tissues Its Function TISSUES Dermal Tissue Epidermis - Epidermis System - Outermost layer of the (made out of Periderm (found in protection, prevention older stems and primary plant body, of water loss) roots) covering the roots, stems, leaves, floral parts, fruits, Ground Tissue System Parenchyma Tissue and seeds (functions for - One layer thick with cuticle photosynthesis, food Collenchyma Tissue storage, regeneration, - Composed mostly of support, and Sclerenchyma Tissue unspecialized cells protection) (parenchyma and Vascular Tissue Xylem Tissue sclerenchyma) System sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Includes trichomes, - Provides defense against stomata, bulliform cells, insects etc. - Stomata - Periderm - Tiny openings or pores in - Outermost layer of stems plant tissue that allow for and roots of woody plants gas exchange such as trees, also known - Typically found in plant as barks leaves but are mainly - Multilayered structures found in stems - Replace the epidermis in - Specialized cells known as plants that undergo guard cells surround secondary growth stomata and function to - Includes cork cells, which open and close stomatal are nonliving cells that pores cover the outside of stems - Opens during the and roots daytime - Its main function is to (Swollen/Turgid) protect the plant from - Closes during the injuries, pathogens, and nighttime from excessive water loss (Shrunken/Flaccid) - Primary Growth - - Bulliform Cells increase length in - Cells distributed between shoot and the root the epidermal cells of the - Secondary Growth - leaf increase in girth or - Responsible for storage of thickness of plant water - Helps in rolling of leaves to PARTS OF THE EPIDERMIS prevent loss in water - Trichomes through transpiration - Small hairs or other during stress conditions outgrowths form the - Regulates the epidermis of a plant transpiration process - Root Hairs absorb water and minerals PARTS OF THE PERIDERM - Leaf Hairs reflect - Heartwood radiation, lower - Dead wood and are less plant temperature, susceptible to fungus as and reduce water contains almost no loss moisture, meaning it will shrink less when it dries sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Sapwood - Transports dissolved - Alive wood that contains organic food materials water and other minerals (sugars) from the leaves to - Shrinks and crack more all parts of a plant in a easily over time and is downward direction more susceptible to fungus and decay XYLEM ELEMENTS - Vascular Cambium - Xylem Tracheids - Increases the diameter of - Lignified and dead cells stems and roots and for with bordered pits forming woody tissue - Helps in conduction of water in pteridophytes VASCULAR TISSUES and gymnosperms and - Specialized cells which transport provide mechanical water, hormones, and minerals support plants throughout the plant - Pteridophytes - - Contains transfer cells, fibers, in vascular plant addition to xylem, phloem, reproduction parenchyma, cambium, and through SPORES other conducting cells - Gymnosperms - - Located on the veins of the seed-producing leaves vascular plant - Xylem Vessels - Long and tubular with TYPES OF VASCULAR lignified cell wall TISSUES - Cross wall (end wall) at - Xylem (Water-Conducting Cells) both ends dissolves and - Dead with hollow cells, form a pipe-like channel consisting of only the cell - They help in the ascent of wall sap in angiosperms - They play a vital role in - Ascent of Sap refers transporting water and to the upward dissolved nutrients from movement of water the roots to all parts of the and minerals from plant in an upward the roots to the direction aerial parts of the - Phloem (Sugar-Conducting Cells) plant - Live cells that lack a - Xylem Fibers nucleus and other organelles sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Long and narrow - Food material storage and sclerenchymatous fibers storage of the following: with tapering end - Mucilage - - The wall is heavily lignified gelatinous leaving a very narrow substance in plant lumen cells aiding in water - Provides tensile and storage, seed mechanical strength germination, and - Xylem Parenchyma nutrient storage - Thin-walled living cells - Tannins - present in both primary polyphenolic and secondary xylem compounds that - It stores food materials protect plants by making tissues less palatable and PHLOEM ELEMENTS deterring - Sieve Tubes herbivores - Living but lack nucleus at - Resins - sticky maturity substances that - Cell wall is thin and made protect plants by up of cellulose sealing wounds and - Transverse wells of sieve deterring tube form the sieve plate herbivores and - They help in conduction of pathogens food material - Companion Cells - Living, thin-walled, narrow, MERISTEMATIC TISSUES and found attached to the - Group of cells that have the lateral side of sieve ability to divide element - Consists of small, cuboidal, - Absent in pteridophytes, densely packed cells that keeps gymnosperms, and are on dividing to form new cells absent in all monocots and - They are capable of stretching, some dicots enlarging, and differentiating - Support the sieve tube in into other types of tissues as they transport of food mature - Phloem Fibers - They give rise to permanent - Sclerenchymatous fibers with a thick wall and TYPES OF PLANT GROWTH narrow lumen - Primary Growth - Phloem Parenchyma sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Increase in the length of shoot and root systems Grade 11 Reviewer - Facilitated by apical 1st Semester meristems - Secondary Growth General Biology - Increase in the girth of Annastacia Penny | Curie shoot and root systems Angel Catungal | Einstein - Facilitated by lateral meristem Unit 1: Animal Cells and Tissues KINDS OF MERISTEMATIC Tissue GROWTH A group of cells with similar - Apical Meristems structure and function - Found at the tip of the stems and roots From a Latin word which - During the cell division, means 'weave' this meristem helps in + Histology – the study of cellular enlargement tissues. - Influences the shape of + Histopathology - study of the mature plants tissues in connection with - Lateral Meristems diseases of tissues. - Found along the sides of + Anatomy - study of the roots and stems biological form of an - Functions in stem/root organism width increase + Physiology - study of the - Intercalary Meristems biological functions an - Found at the bases of organism performs young leaves and internodes Exchange With The - Responsible for further Environment lengthening stems and leaves Materials such as nutrients, waste products, and gases must be exchanged across the cell membranes of animal cells Rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s surface area sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  Amount of exchange CMEN - Connective, Muscle, Epithelial, material is proportional to a Nervous cell’s volume Interstitial Fluid 1 Epithelial Tissues - In vertebrates, it fills in the space between cells - Made of closely-packed - Allows for the movement of cells arranged in flat material into and out of cells sheets - Type of animal tissue that covers the body and lines the body’s cavities and organs (ex. Skin and Digestive Tract) - Protects the body and its internal organs - Secretes substances such as hormones - Absorbs substances such as nutrients. Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans 3 Main Functions of Epithelial Tissues: 1. Protection 2. Secretion 3. Absorption 2 Surfaces of the Epithelial Tissue Four Types of Tissues - All epithelia are polarized, meaning that they have two different sides. 1. Apical Surface - Exposed to the body cavity or exterior. 2. Basal Surface - Adjacent to the underlying tissue. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Attached to the basal 2. Stratified Epithelium lamina, a dense mat of extracellular matrix, which separates the epithelium from underlying tissue. - Made of two or more cell layers. - Functions as a protective covering, like it does in our skin. Main functions: 2 General Types of Epithelial 1. Protection against stress Tissues (mechanical, abrasion, and damage) 1. Simple Epithelium 2. Protection against infections 3. Regeneration and repair (shedding and emergence of new cells) 4. Covers dry surface of skin, moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, and inner lining of salivary glands - Composed of single layer of cells. 3 Types of Epithelial Tissues - Functions as a lining of cavities of body, ducts According to Shape and tubes. Main functions: 1. Nutrient, water, and electrolyte absorption 2. Secretion of mucus (digestive tract) and secretion of hormones (thyroids and pancreas) 3. Blood filtration 4. Gas diffusion in the alveoli 5. Sensation (taste buds and Squamous (like floor tiles) olfactory epithelium) Cuboidal (like dice) Columnar (like bricks on end) sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  + Tubules of nephrons + Ovary Arrangement may be: - Main Functions: Secretion and Simple (single cell layer) Absorption Stratified (multiple cell layers) Pseudostratified (single layer 3. Simple Columnar Epithelium of cells with varying length) Shapes of Simple Epithelium: 1. Simple Squamous Epithelium - Composed of single layer of tall and slender cells - The free surface of these cells - Made of a single layer of may have microvilli irregular, thin, flattened - They are found in lining of cells with irregular stomach and intestine boundaries - It helps in secretion of mucous - Found in the walls of and enzymes and absorption blood vessels, lymphatic + Goblet Cells vessels, and in air sacs of - column-shaped cell which lungs function is to secrete + Blood Vessels - to mucus in order to protect reduce friction the mucous membranes + Air Sacs - Gas where they are found. Exchange - Allows materials to pass 2 Types of Columnar through by diffusion and Epithelium (Ciliated) filtration, and secretes a. Ciliated Columnar lubricating substances Epithelium 2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium - It is made of a single layer of cube-like cells - Function: Secretes and Absorbs - Commonly found in: - Composed of tall, + Ducts of glands column-shaped cells sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Each cell typically has a - Lines up the nasal cavity to single, oval nucleus filter and clean the air we located near the base inhale - Found in the respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, vas Shapes of Stratified deferens and the brain Epithelium: - It has cilia that beats in a 1. Stratified Squamous coordinated manner to move substances along Epithelium the surface of the tissue Mucociliary Escalator - Apparatus of mucus and cilia - Most common type of stratified - Responsible for movement of epithelium mucus up and out of the - The basal cells (cells at the respiratory tract bottomest layer) are typically cuboidal or columnar and b. Pseudostratified Ciliated undergo constant division Columnar Epithelium - As new cells are produced, older cells are pushed toward the surface, where they flatten and become squamous (thin and flat) - The apical layer (top layer) consists of squamous cells, which can be either be: + Keratinized - Appears to be composed of + Non-keratinized multiple layers of cells, but in reality, it is a single layer Keratin - The nuclei of the cells are - A tough, fibrous protein that positioned at different levels, makes the epithelium giving the illusion of water-resistant and more stratification, but each cell is durable connected only at a single basement membrane - Has the same functions as the 2 Types of Stratified ciliated columnar epithelium Squamous Epithelium (found in the respiratory tract (Keratinized and and reproductive parts) Non-Keratinized) sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo a. Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium 2. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium - Consists of two or more layers of cells, where the cells in the - Functions: Protection against apical layer are cuboidal in abrasion, desiccation, and shape microbial invasion - Less common than stratified - Found in the epidermis of the squamous epithelium skin - Function: Provides protection - The surface cells are filled with and limited secretion and keratin absorption - The outermost cells are dead - Found mainly in the ducts of and constantly shed and some larger glands (ex. sweat replaced glands, mammary glands, salivary glands) b. Non-Keratinized Stratified - Provides a sturdy lining for Squamous Epithelium these ducts, protecting the underlying tissues 3. Stratified Columnar Epithelium - Function: Protects against abrasion and provides a moist surface that reduces friction. - Lines moist surfaces such as the - Consists of several cell layers, oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, with the apical layer being and the lining of the mouth and composed of columnar cells. throat. - The deeper layers may be - The surface cells remain alive cuboidal or irregular in shape. and do not become keratinized, - It is relatively rare in the body. maintaining a moist environment. sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Function: Provides protection 2 Connective Tissues and secretion - Found in the male urethra, the conjunctiva of the eye, and in - Binds and supports other some large ducts of glands like tissues the salivary glands. - Contains sparsely packed - It also lines parts of the pharynx cells scattered throughout an and the epiglottis, where it helps extracellular matrix protect these tissues and - Matrix: consists of fibers in a facilitates the passage of liquid, jelly-like or solid materials. foundation. - Three types of connective tissue fiber (All made of protein): - Collagenous fibers: for strength and stability - Elastic fibers: stretch and snap back (elastic) - Reticular fibers: joins 4. Transitional Epithelium connective tissues to adjacent tissues. + Fibroblast is the principal cell of connective tissue. TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES - AKA urothelium - made up of several layers of cells that become flattened when stretched. - Lines the bladder, urethra, and ureters - Allows urinary organs to expand and stretch a. Fibrous Connective Tissue sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Seen in Tendons and Ligaments - Irregular: Has many different orientations - Tough coverings that package organs (capsules of the kidneys, etc.) *LOOSE* *DENSE* b. Supportive Connective Tissue - A type of tissue that is mostly made up of tough protein fibers called collagen and cells called fibroblasts. - Exists in two forms: loose fibrous tissue and dense *CARTILAGE* *BONE* fibrous tissue - Provides structure and 1. Loose Fibrous Connective strength to the body and Tissue (Areolar Tissue) protects soft tissues. :supports epithelium and many - Cartilage and Bone are internal organs examples. The extracellular - Adipose Tissue: Here, cells matrix is solid in both tissues. enlarge and store fat. 2. Dense Fibrous Connective I. CARTILAGE Tissue - A strong, flexible connective tissue that :Supports, protects, and holds protects joints and bones, muscles, and other tissues bones. and organs in place. - In its cells lie small :Contains many collagen fibers chambers called lacunae. packed together. They are separated by a - Found in Tendons (Muscle flexible solid matrix. to Bone) and Ligaments - Some have (Bone to Bone). perichondrium which is essential for cartilage TYPES OF DENSE FIBROUS growth and maintenance. CONNECTIVE TISSUE 3 TYPES OF CARTILAGE - Regular: Line up parallel sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Found in structures that 1. Hyaline Cartilage withstand tension and pressure - Example: Knee Meniscus II. BONE - Most rigid connective tissue - Most common type - Made of extremely - Contains only fine collagen fibers. hard matrix of - Glassy and Translucent inorganic salts - Example: Nose (calcium salts) 2. Elastic Cartilage - Compact Bone (Cortical) - Makes up long bone shaft - It consists of cylindrical structures called osteons (Haversian Systems) - Spongy (Trabecular) Bone - At the ends of long bones - Surrounds bone marrow cavity and covered by - Elastic fibers compact bones (sandwich - Flexible structure) - Example: Ear - Appears as open, bony latticework 3. Fibrocartilage - Contains strong collagen fibers. THE OSTEON sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  1. Osteocyte - maintains bone - Central Canal (Haversian tissue Canal) 2. Osteoblast - forms bone matrix - Hard matrix rings surround each 3. Osteogenic cells - stem cells - Located in lacunae between that play a prodigal role in bone rings of matrix repair and growth - Here, nerve fibers carry nerve 4. Osteoclast - dissolves and impulses and blood vessels carry breaks down old or damaged nutrients essential for bone bone cells. renewal. - Thin extensions of bone cells c. Fluid Connective Tissue within canaliculi connect cells together and to the osteon. - Also called the vascular + Canaliculi - connective tissue network of minute - Maintains the continuity of canals or small the body by connecting passageways different parts of the body. (hair-like) - Two types: Blood and Lymph 2 TYPES OF FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE 1. Blood TYPES OF CELLS FOUND IN BONES sevizcaya, jmlunor, abpenny, racatungal, dbllenos, wdcorpuz Curie, Einstein, Galileo  - Plasma: 55% of whole blood - Water: 92% - Proteins: 7% - Other solutes (nutrients, electrolytes, respiratory gasses, waste products): 1% + Less water = Blood becomes more - Consists of formed viscous elements and plasma - Erythrocytes: 44% of whole (liquid extracellular blood matrix) - 4.2-6.2 million per cubic + Plasma consists of mm water, salts, and - Buffy Coat (includes dissolved proteins Thrombocytes and Leukocytes): + Erythrocytes (RBC),